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BOLIVAR 


A HISTORY  OF 
LATIN  AMERICA 


WILLIAM  WARREN  SWEET 

Professor  of  History,  DoPauw  University 


WITH  MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE  ABINGDON  PRESS 


NEW  YORK 


CINCINNATI 


Copyright,  1919,  by 
WILLIAM  WARREN  SWEET 


Fir»t  Edition  Printed  February,  1919 
Reprinted  April,  1919;  April,  1920 


To  THE  MEMORY  OF  MY  SISTER 

Mrs.  Bertha  Sweet  Baltzell, 

1877-1918 

this  book  is  dedicated,  with  love 

AND  GRATITUDE 


CONTENTS 


chapter  paqb 

I.  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Background 7 

II.  Physical  Aspects  and  Native  Races  of  Latin 

America 21 

III.  Portuguese  and  Spanish  Exploration  in 

America 32 

IV.  The  Colonization  of  the  Islands  and  the 

Isthmus 46 


V.  The  Conquests  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chile  . . 55 

VI.  The  Founding  of  the  Agricultural  Colonies  of 


Spain:  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  La  Plata  75 

VII.  The  Portuguese  Colonization  of  Brazil 84 

VIII.  Colonial  Administration 94 

IX.  Economic  Conditions  in  Colonial  Latin 

America 102 

X.  Society  in  Colonial  Latin  America 118 

XI.  Two  Hundred  Years  of  Spanish  Rule  in 

America 129 

XII.  The  Causes  of  the  South  American  Wars  for 

Independence 140 

XIII.  The  Wars  for  Independence 148 

XIV.  The  Empire  of  Brazil  and  the  Independence 

of  Mexico 165 

XV.  The  Backward  States  and  the  Military 

Dictators 176 

XVI.  The  Rise  of  Progressive  South  American 

States 189 

XVII.  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  States  . . . 202 

XVIII.  The  Governments  of  the  Latin  American 

States 214 

XIX.  Races  and  Society  in  Latin  America 221 

XX.  Economic  Conditions  and  Industrial  Problems  238 

XXI.  International  Relations  and  Commerce 253 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 

PAGE 

Frontispiece 

Bolivar,  the  Liberator  of  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  Ecuador 

First  Group 73 

Cortes,  the  Conqueror  of  Mexico 
Montezuma  II,  the  Emperor  of  Mexico 
Francisco  Pizarro,  the  Conqueror  of  Peru 

Francisco  de  Miranda,  the  Father  of  Latin  American  Indepen- 
dence 

San  Martin,  Liberator  of  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Peru 
Second  Group 200 

Rosas,  the  Argentine  Tyrant 

Jos6  Balmaceda,  President  of  Chile,  1886-1891 

Benito  J.uarez,  President  of  Mexico  during  the  struggle  against 
the  French  invasion 

Statue  of  Emperor  Dom  Pedro  II  of  Brazil 

Porfirio  Diaz,  President  of  Mexico,  1876-1880;  1884-1910 


MAPS 

FACING 

PAGE 

Spain  at  Four  Periods 15 

Physical  Map  of  South  America 22 

Voyages  of  Columbus 39 

Colonization  of  the  Islands  and  the  Isthmus 50 

Mexico,  1519 60 

Peru,  1522  68 

Agricultural  Colonies  of  South  America 82 

Political  Divisions  of  Colonial  Latin  America 136 

Northern  and  Southern  Movements  for  Independence 

in  South  America 156 

Movements  for  Independence  in  Mexico 170 

South  America 190 

Agriculture  in  South  America 240 

Agriculture  in  Mexico  and  Central  America 243 

Minerals  of  South  America 244 

Minerals  of  Mexico  and  Central  America 245 

Railroads  of  South  America 248 

Railroads  of  Mexico 250 

Railroads  of  Central  America  and  the  Islands 251 

Latin  American  Exports,  1913  and  1916 270 

Latin  American  Imports,  1913  and  1916 271 


PREFACE 


This  book,  designed  to  meet  the  need  for  a suitable  text  in 
Latin  American  History,  has  grown  out  of  a class-room  experi- 
ence, and  has  been  prepared  primarily  for  students  and  teachers. 
The  author  has  had  in  mind,  however,  the  many  outside  of 
schools  and  colleges  who  are  seeking  information  about  our 
neighbors  to  the  South,  and  hopes  that  to  this  class  of  readers 
the  book  will  have  a large  appeal. 

Believing  it  to  be  the  better  plan,  reading  references  to  easily 
obtainable  books  have  been  given  at  the  end  of  each  chapter, 
rather  than  a more  complete  bibliography  containing  books 
practically  unobtainable.  For  this  reason  also  only  books  in 
English  have  been  cited. 

Thanks  are  due  Professors  McDonald,  of  Indiana  University; 
Katharine  S.  Alvord,  of  DePauw  University;  and  William  T. 
Allison,  of  the  University  of  Manitoba,  all  of  whom  read  parts 
of  the  manuscript. 

W.  W.  S. 

Greencastle,  Indiana, 

DePauw  University, 

October  1,  1918. 


CHAPTER  I 

SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  BACKGROUND 


Just  as  the  history  of  the  United  States  begins  in  Europe, 
and  especially  in  England,  so  also  the  history  of  Latin  America 
begins  in  the  Old  World,  and  especially  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
It  would  be  quite  impossible  to  understand  the  people  and 
institutions  of  Central  and  South  America  if  we  did  not  know 
something  of  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  Iberian  peninsula 
when  Columbus  made  his  first  voyage  of  discovery  and  planted 
the  first  Latin  colony  in  the  New  World.  Accordingly,  we  shall 
try,  in  this  chapter,  to  understand  the  chief  characteristics  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  people,  and  to  explain  how  these 
characteristics  were  the  result  of  the  peculiar  history  of  the 
Iberian  peninsula. 

At  the  beginning  of  Latin  colonization  in  the  New  World 
certain  characteristics  had  become  definitely  fixed  in  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  character,  and  the  marks  of  these 
peculiarities  may  be  clearly  traced  in  the  Latin  American  of 
to-day.  These  characteristics  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
(1)  The  people  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  are  the  product  of  the 
mixing  of  races.  In  fact,  they  are  the  most  mixed  race  in 
Europe.  Into  the  Spanish  peninsula  has  come  wave  after 
wave  of  conquest,  one  set  of  conquests  sweeping  down  from 
the  north  and  west,  while  another  has  come  up  from  Africa  and 
the  east.  (2)  They  are  the  most  Oriental  of  all  the  European 
peoples,  made  so  by  the  free  mixing  of  the  blood  of  the  Jews 
and  the  Moors  with  that  of  the  Spanish  race,  especially  during 
the  early  mediaeval  period.  Thus  we  must  not  think  of  the 

Spaniard  and  the  Portuguese  as  we  would 

The  Peculiar 

Characteristics  of  the  think  of  the  Frenchman  or  the  Englishman, 
Spanish  and  as  being  pure  Europeans,  with  purely  Euro- 

Portuguese  . . , . 

pean  traits,  but  we  must  think  of  them  as  at 
least  partly  Oriental.  (3)  At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  Spaniard  had  developed  a degree  of  intolerance  beyond 

7 


8 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


that  of  any  other  European  people.  This  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  during  the  long  period  of  six  hundred  years  the  Christian 
states  of  the  peninsula  were  engaged  in  a bitter  struggle  with 
the  followers  of  Mohammed,  who  had  conquered  the  southern 
part  of  their  country  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century, 
and  were  not  finally  overcome  until  the  very  year  Columbus 
set  sail  upon  his  first  voyage.  (4)  This  long  struggle  against 
the  Moors  in  Spain  tended  to  create  but  two  chief  interests 
among  the  people — war  and  religion;  and  these  two  interests 
dominated  the  whole  life  of  the  people.  (5)  Lastly,  due  to  in- 
tolerance of  other  faiths,  the  industrial  classes,  the  Jews  and 
the  Moors,  were  driven  out  of  the  country,  and  as  the  Span- 
iards were  not  producers  of  wealth,  the  country  was  reduced  to 
a deplorable  economic  condition,  just  at  the  time  the  New 
World  was  opening  up  to  Europeans. 

The  oldest  inhabitants  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  were  called 
Iberians.  In  the  course  of  time  other  peoples,  supposed  to  be 
of  Celtic  origin,  mingled  with  the  original  inhabitants.  By  the 
third  century  B.  C.  there  were  several  distinct  tribes,  each 
having  its  own  language  and  customs.  Among  these  tribes 
were  the  Asturians  in  the  northwest,  the  Cantabrians  to  the 
east,  while  in  the  north-central  portion  were  the  Basques,  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  original  Iberians.  The  Galicians  occu- 
pied the  seacoasts  to  the  extreme  northwest  and  the  Lusitanians 
dwelt  in  what  is  now  Portugal.  Thus  we  see  from  earliest  times 
i Th  Peo  ie  of  the  there  were  several  different  peoples,  inhabit- 
iberian  Peninsula  a ing  what  is  now  Spain  and  Portugal.  These 

Mixed  Race.  Early  people  were  in  a semibarbaric  state,  though 

there  are  traditions  and  numerous  stories 
which  tell  of  trade  with  the  Phoenicians,  and  we  have  definite 
knowledge  that  the  latter,  pioneers  of  commerce  in  the  ancient 
world,  established  a brisk  trade  in  the  precious  metals  with  the 
Iberians. 

The  first  people  to  establish  a colony  in  Spain  were  the 
Greeks,  who,  following  the  example  of  the  Phoenicians,  opened 
up  trade,  and  later  established  colonies  along  the  southern 
coast.  The  Carthaginians,  however,  were  the  first  to  attempt 
a conquest  of  the  country.  The  invasion  was  effected  by 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  BACKGROUND  9 


Hamilcar  Barca  (B.  C.  241-218),  who  saw  in  the  Spanish  silver 
mines  the  means  of  carrying  on  the  struggle  with  Rome,  and 
in  the  people  a hardy  soldiery,  “that  would  match  even  the 
legions  of  Rome.”  After  nine  years  of  hard  fighting  a large 
part  of  the  peninsula  was  conquered  and 
brought  under  the  dominion  of  Carthage. 
When  Hannibal,  the  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca, 
took  command  of  the  forces  of  Carthage,  he  had  at  his  com- 
mand the  men  and  money  his  father  had  secured  through  the 
Spanish  conquest.  In  the  second  Punic  war,  however,  Publius 
Scipio  destroyed  the  Carthaginian  power  in  Spain,  and  from 
B.  C.  202  for  a period  of  six  hundred  years  Spain  was  a part  of 
the  Roman  empire. 

In  many  respects  the  Roman  conquest  of  Spain  was  the  most 
important  of  all  the  invasions  of  that  country,  for  to  it  Spain 
and  Portugal  owe  the  basis  of  their  language.  Under  republi- 
can Rome,  Spain  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  called  Hither 
and  Farther  Spain.  This  was  a period  of  much  disturbance, 
for  the  rule  of  the  Roman  officials  was  so  corrupt  that  the  tribes 
revolted,  and  it  was  not  until  B.  C.  113  that  most  of  the  coun- 
try was  subdued  and  a settled  government  established.  After 
this  the  Romanization  of  the  country  progressed  rapidly.  Dis- 
banded Roman  soldiers  were  sent  as  colo- 
ns ^n^8t*  nizers;  Roman  legionaries,  quartered  in  Spain, 
married  Spanish  wives,  and  when  relieved 
from  duty  settled  down  as  permanent  inhabitants;  cities  on  the 
Roman  model  were  built,  and  in  the  course  of  time  Spain  be- 
came the  most  completely  Romanized  of  all  the  Roman  prov- 
inces. Under  the  empire  Spain  was  redivided  into  three 
provinces,  Tarraconensis  in  the  southern  part,  Baetica  to  the 
north,  and  Lusitania  on  the  extreme  west.  The  resources  of 
the  country  were  developed  as  never  before  and  a literature 
sprang  up,  which  represented  the  best  Latin  literature  of  the 
period,  Seneca  being  the  chief  literary  star  of  Spain.  It  is  in- 
teresting in  this  connection  to  note  that  the  chief  Latin  writers, 
who  follow  the  group  of  the  Augustan  period,  mostly  hailed 
from  the  provinces,  many  of  them  coming  from  Spain,  so  that 
the  prophecy,  made  in  the  early  years  of  the  conquest,  “that 


10 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Spain  would  become  more  Roman  than  Rome  itself,”  was  lit- 
erally fulfilled. 

The  next  wave  of  conquest,  sweeping  into  Spain  from  the 
north  and  west,  brought  the  Suevi,  the  Vandals,  and  the  West 
Goths.  In  the  latter  quarter  of  the  fourth  century  the  Suevi 
and  the  Vandals  “swept  away  the  barriers  of  the  Roman  empire 
beyond  the  Alps,”  entered  Gaul,  and  in  409  passed  the  Pyrenees 
and  entered  Spain.  This  invasion  was  attended  by  indescrib- 
able cruelty.  The  Vandals  ravaged  the  people,  plundered  the 
country,  destroyed  the  cities,  and  finally,  “satiated  with  car- 
nage and  rapine,”  they  settled  down  upon  the  depopulated 
country.  Rome  was  unable  to  drive  out  these  terrible  invaders 
with  her  weakened  legions,  but  she  succeeded  in  making  a half- 
alliance with  another  barbarian  tribe,  the  West  Goths,  who 
had  recently  broken  across  the  boundary  in  the  northeast  and 
had  swept  across  Greece  and  northern  Italy  down  into  Rome. 
Their  famous  leader,  Alaric,  sacked  Rome  in  410.  Leaving 
The  suevi,  the  Italy,  the  Goths  attacked  the  Suevi  and  the 

vandals,  and  the  West  Vandals  and  drove  them  out  of  southern 
Gothic  invasions  France  and  Spain  into  northern  Africa.  The 
West  Goths  then  settled  down  in  the  peninsula,  where  they 
established  a kingdom,  which  lasted  for  three  hundred  years. 

These  West  Goths,  who  now  became  the  rulers  of  the  coun- 
try, were  Arian  Christians,  and  were  therefore  distasteful  both 
to  the  Franks,  who  were  orthodox  Christians,  and  to  the 
papacy  at  Rome.  The  Goths,  however,  were  kindly  disposed 
toward  the  Jews,  who  now  came  into  the  country  in  consider- 
able numbers,  where  they  became  prosperous  and  wealthy. 
The  Jews  were  not  here  compelled  to  resort  to  the  debasing 
means  of  extorting  wealth,  which  was  forced  upon  them  in 
other  places,  and  they  became  once  more  tillers  of  the  soil  and 
“cultivators  of  the  arts.”  This  condition  of  things,  however, 
The  west  Gothic  began  to  change  in  the  latter  part  of  the 

Kingdom  and  the  sixth  century,  when  in  the  reign  of  King 

Jews  Reccared  (586-601)  Arianism  was  abolished  as 

the  religion  of  the  court  and  orthodox  Christianity  was  estab- 
lished. The  Catholic  faith  soon  came  to  be  accepted  by  most 
of  the  Arian  subjects.  This  change  had  far-reaching  influences, 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  BACKGROUND  11 


in  that  it  led  to  the  disappearance  of  the  Gothic  language  and 
literature  and  to  the  complete  fusion  of  the  Latin  and  Gothic 
populations.  Another  influence  which  grew 
Displaces  StaS*  out  of  this  change  in  religion  was  the  in- 
creased prominence  given  the  ecclesiastical 
element  in  the  government.  High  church  officials  were  now 
more  influential  than  the  turbulent  nobles,  and  the  church 
councils  became  the  legislative  assemblies  of  the  kingdom. 
Still  another  influence  growing  out  of  these  changed  religious 
conditions  was  the  increased  intolerance  which  began  to  mani- 
fest itself  soon  after  the  change  to  orthodoxy  was  made.  The 
first  great  persecution  of  the  Jews  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
King  Sisebut  (612-620),  and  thereafter  the  position  of  the 
Jews  in  the  peninsula  became  more  and  more  intolerable  and 
persecutions  more  and  more  frequent. 

The  event,  however,  which  gave  to  the  Iberian  peninsula  its 
most  peculiar  history,  and  has  been  the  greatest  influence  in 
making  of  the  Spaniards  a peculiar  race,  was  the  Arab  and 
Berber  invasion,  which  took  place  in  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  century.  In  the  seventh  century  after  Christ  the 
prophet  Mohammed  began  to  preach  the  religion  of  Islam  to 
the  Arabian  people.  For  many  centuries  the  people  of  Arabia 
had  lived  in  strange  isolation,  undisturbed  by  the  rising  and 
falling  of  kingdoms  all  about  them,  paying  little  heed  to  the 
outside  world.  But  with  the  preaching  of  Mohammed  a great 
change  was  wrought,  and  the  Arabian  people,  who  before  the 
time  of  the  prophet  had  been  a loose  collection  of  rival  tribes 
wandering  over  the  desert,  now  were  welded  into  a real  nation, 
with  one  supreme  ambition,  to  bring  their  new-found  religion 
By  the  time  of  the  death  of  the  prophet  his 
religion  had  spread  throughout  all  Arabia, 
and  his  followers  were  busy  carrying  it  to  the 
neighboring  lands.  By  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  it  had  overrun  Persia  and  Egypt  and  had  swept  across 
Africa  as  far  as  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  Among  the  tribes  in 
northern  Africa  to  fall  before  the  Arabian  conquerors  were  the 
Berbers,  a fierce,  warlike  people  who,  however,  were  not  sub- 
dued without  a great  and  long  struggle.  Finally,  the  only 


to  all  mankind. 

The  Mohammedan 
Conquests  to  710 


12 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


place  remaining  unconquered  in  north  Africa  was  the  fortress 
of  Ceuta,  nominally  belonging  to  the  eastern  empire,  just 
across  the  narrow  seas  from  the  shores  of  Spain. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  the  West  Gothic 
kingdom  of  Spain  was  in  no  condition  to  resist  the  onslaught 
of  determined  conquerors.  A large  proportion  of  the  people 
were  slaves,  as  in  Roman  times,  while  the  nobles  held  the  land 
in  great  estates  and  lived  in  luxury  and  idleness.  The  middle 
classes  were  oppressed  with  taxation  and  the  burdens  of  main- 
taining the  government.  The  last  of  the  West  Gothic  kings 
was  Roderick,  who  had  gained  the  throne  by  deposing  his 
predecessor,  and  the  government  was  in  a weakened  condition 
and  without  the  support  of  the  people.  The  Jews  also,  badly 
treated  since  orthodox  Christianity  had  become  the  religion  of 
the  state,  hated  the  government  and  were  ready  and  anxious 
to  exchange  their  Gothic  masters  for  Arabian  and  they  were 
active  in  hastening  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom.  The  governor 
of  Ceuta  also  hated  King  Roderick  because  of  wrongs  done 
his  daughter,  and  he  too  plotted  his  overthrow,  even  furnishing 
ships,  in  710,  to  take  the  first  plundering  band  of  five  hundred 
Berbers  to  the  shores  of  Spain.  This  expe- 
ctnquTs't'o^spain  dition  was  fully  successful,  and  the  next  year 
seven  thousand  Moors  under  the  leadership 
of  Tarik  landed  safely  on  the  shores  of  Spain,  advanced 
unopposed,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Guadalete,  a stream  run- 
ning into  the  Straits  of  Cape  Trafalgar,  met  the  forces  of  King 
Roderick,  and  after  eight  days  of  fighting  completely  defeated 
him.  In  the  words  of  the  old  Spanish  ballad — 

“The  Hosts  of  Rodrigo  were  scattered  in  dismay, 

When  lost  was  the  last  battle,  nor  heart  nor  hope  had  they; 

He,  when  he  saw  that  field  was  lost,  and  all  his  hope  was  flown, 

He  turned  him  from  his  flying  host,  and  took  his  way  alone. 


“He  looked  for  the  brave  captains  that  led  the  hosts  of  Spain, 

But  all  were  fled  except  the  dead,  and  who  could  count  the  slain? 
Where’er  his  eye  could  wander  all  bloody  was  the  plain, 

And  while  this  he  said,  the  tears  he  shed  ran  down  his  face  like  rain.” 

And  so  the  West  Gothic  kingdom  was  overthrown,  and  for 
eight  centuries  the  fairest  provinces  of  Spain  were  to  remain 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Moslem. 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  BACKGROUND  13 


Such  have  been  the  waves  of  conquest  and  invasion  which 
have  swept  into  the  Iberian  peninsula.  Upon  the  original 
stock,  already  mixed,  has  been  grafted  the  stock  of  the  Roman, 
the  West  Goth,  and  the  Moor,  to  say  nothing  of  the  influences 
left  by  the  Phoenician,  the  Greek,  the  Carthaginian  and  the 
Jew. 

The  second  characteristic  of  the  Spaniard  is  that  he  is  the 
most  Oriental  of  all  Europeans.  After  the  Mohammedan  con- 
n The  Spaniard  the  Quest  of  Spain,  the  line  between  the  Moor  and 
Most  oriental  of  the  Christian  was  not  as  closely  drawn  as  we 
European  Peoples  might  expect.  The  Moors  were  extremely 
tolerant,  and  the  Christians  who  remained  in  the  conquered 
territories  were  given  undisputed  enjoyment  of  their  property 
and  religion.  Seven  churches  in  Cordoba  and  six  in  Toledo 
were  occupied  by  the  Christians  throughout  the  whole  period 
of  the  Moorish  domination,  and  public  Christian  worship  was 
allowed.  Taxes  were  on  the  whole  light,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  poll  tax,  Moors  and  Christians  were  treated  alike. 
There  was  little  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Moors  to  convert 
the  Christians,  though  many  Christians  became  converts  to 
the  faith  of  their  conquerors,  and  intermarriage  between  the 
races  was  common. 

Nothing  is  more  interesting  in  the  history  of  the  Spanish 
peninsula  than  the  relation  of  the  Jew  to  its  civilization.  As 
we  have  already  seen,  Jews  were  present  in  Spain  in  large  num- 
bers before  the  coming  of  the  Moors  and  welcomed  the  con- 
querors from  northern  Africa.  Under  the  Moors  the  Jews 
found  conditions  for  themselves  much  improved,  and  they 
turned  again  to  agriculture  and  pastoral  life.  They  also  took 
part  in  the  intellectual  revival  in  Spain,  and  it  was  the  com- 
bined influence  of  the  Jew  and  the  Moor  which  caused  Spain 
for  a time  to  lead  the  civilization  of  western  Europe.  At  this 
period  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  Spain  was  the  most  tolerant 

nation  in  Europe.  The  Christian,  the  Moor, 

Spain  the  Most  ^ 7 

Tolerant  Nation  in  and  the  Jew  lived  together,  side  by  side,  each 
Europe  in  the  Early  respecting  the  other.  “The  period  during 

Middle  Ages  , # # 

which  Spanish  territory  was  divided  between 
the  Christian  and  the  Mohammedan  appears,  from  the  stand- 


14 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


point  of  social  enlightenment,  the  most  hopeful  in  the  history 
of  the  peninsula.  The  process  of  race  affiliation  and  assimila- 
tion had  begun,  and  through  the  mingling  of  the  elements 
present  there  was  forming  a new  nation,  big  with  the  prospects 
of  great  material  achievement.” 

Although  there  was  considerable  mixing  of  these  three  races 
during  the  early  mediaeval  period,  when  they  lived  together  in 
mutual  respect,  yet  the  mixing  went  on  more  rapidly  after 
persecution  of  the  Jews  and  the  Moors.  As  the  influence  of 
the  church  and  the  church  officials  came  to  be  greater  in  the 
peninsula,  toleration  gave  way  to  intolerance.  The  church 
taught  the  people  to  abhor  the  Jew,  and  from  time  to  time  the 
spirit  of  persecution  broke  out  against  them.  The  tolerant 
attitude  toward  the  Moor  also  underwent  a change,  and  by 
the  thirteenth  century  the  attempt  was  made  to  compel  both 
the  Jews  and  the  Moors  to  wear  peculiar  garbs,  in  order  that 
they  might  at  once  be  recognized  and  avoided.  From  the  year 
1300  popular  hatred  of  the  Jews  greatly  increased,  and  in  the 
year  1391  there  occurred  a great  and  terribly  cruel  massacre. 

Popular  passion  against  the  hated  race  was 

Persecution  of  the 

jews  After  1300.  aroused  by  the  preaching  of  an  official  con- 

Theii  intermarriage  nected  with  the  court  of  the  Archbishop  of 

with  Spaniards  # a 

Seville,  and  a wave  of  persecution  swept  over 
the  entire  kingdom  of  Castile,  spreading  at  length  to  Aragon. 
Public  authority  was  paralyzed,  Jewries  were  sacked,  and  the 
Jews  who  would  not  submit  to  baptism  were  ruthlessly  killed. 
As  a result  of  this  terrible  persecution  Castile  and  Aragon 
suffered  a shock  to  their  commerce  and  industry,  which  was 
largely  in  Jewish  and  Moorish  hands,  from  which  they  never 
recovered.  After  this  many  Jews  professed  conversion,  and 
were  known  as  conversos.  These  conversos  made  up  a con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  population,  and  many  of  them 
reached  positions  of  authority  in  both  church  and  state,  where 
they  became  even  more  fanatical  than  the  Spaniards  them- 
selves. Intermarriage  between  these  conversos  and  the  Span- 
iards became  frequent,  due  to  the  desire  of  the  poor  Spanish 
nobility  to  recoup  their  fortunes,  and  by  1500  most  of  the  great 
families  of  Spain  had  Jewish  blood  in  their  veins. 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  BACKGROUND  15 

Thus  was  one  Oriental  element  added  to  the  Spanish 
race. 

The  fact  that  the  Spaniard  came  to  be  the  most  intolerant 
of  Europeans  is  due  to  the  long  struggle  between  the  Spaniard 
and  the  Moor  rather  than  to  anything  inherent  in  Spanish 
character.  As  we  have  already  seen,  during  the  early  period 
of  Mohammedan  rule  in  Spain,  a degree  of  tolerance  was  de- 
veloped unknown  in  other  European  countries.  The  little 
Christian  states  which  arose  in  northern  Spain  were  only  Chris- 
tian in  name.  Moor  and  Christian  fought  side  by  side.  "The 
Cid,”  the  traditional  hero  of  Christian  Spain,  fought  with 
Moor  and  Christian  alike;  for  although  he  led  the  forces  of 
Castile,  he  nevertheless  had  Moors  in  his  employ.  When, 
however,  these  Christian  states  had  grown  to  considerable 
size,  and  had  become  better  organized,  the  influence  of  the 
church  naturally  increased  and  the  Roman 
SoierTc?^  Spain  Church  has  never  been  noted  for  her  tolera- 

tion of  other  faiths.  The  early  struggles  with 
the  Moors  were  not  crusades  against  the  infidel,  but  were 
waged,  like  all  mediseval  wars,  for  plunder  or  territory.  The 
crusading  spirit  in  Spain  and  Portugal  arose  at  the  same  time 
as  in  other  European  states.  The  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies were  the  centuries  of  the  crusades,  when  all  Christian 
Europe  was  aroused  against  the  infidel,  Spain  with  the  rest. 
Spain,  however,  took  little  or  no  part  in  the  expeditions  to 
capture  the  holy  places;  her  crusading  zeal  was  confined  to  the 
destruction  of  the  infidel  at  her  very  doors. 

During  these  years  the  church  urged  the  Christian  states  of 
Spain  to  rid  themselves  of  the  disgrace  of  harboring  the  in- 
fidel. The  Jew  and  the  Moor  were  held  up  before  the  people 
as  enemies  of  God  and  the  Christian  race.  While  the  other 
European  states  were  organizing  their  orders  of  Christian 
knights,  such  as  the  Knights  Templars,  the  Knights  Hos- 
pitalers, and  the  Teutonic  Knights,  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese crusaders  were  organizing  their  orders  of  the  Santiago, 
and  Calatrava,  of  Alcantara,  and  Evora.  The  European 
orders  fought  the  infidel  in  Syria  and  in  the  Holy  Land,  but 
the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  knight  fought  the  infidel  in  his 


16 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


own  peninsula.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  crusades  lasted 
The  Spanish  and  much  longer  than  the  crusades  among  the 
Portuguese  Crusades  other  European  states.  Gradually  the  cru- 
Agamst  the  Moors  sading  spirit  died  out  in  France  and  England 
and  Germany,  and  by  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  it  was 
no  longer  a factor  in  Europe,  but  not  so  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Here  it  lasted  until  the  Moor  was  completely  conquered,  or 
driven  beyond  the  borders  of  Spain,  and  this  was  not  finally 
accomplished  until  the  very  year  1492.  The  crusading  energy 
was  effective  in  driving  the  Moors  farther  and  farther  south- 
ward, and  on  July  6,  1212,  the  five  confederated  states  of  Cas- 
The  Battle  of  Las  til®,  Aragon,  Leon,  Navarre,  and  Portugal 

Navas  de  Toiosa,  won  the  decisive  battle  of  Las  Navas  de 

July  6. 1212  Toiosa,  and  the  fate  of  Spain  was  decided  in 

favor  of  the  Christian  states.  In  1236  Cordoba,  the  capital  of 
the  Kalifs,  fell,  and  in  1248  Seville  was  taken  by  the  Christian 
armies.  With  the  fall  of  Seville  the  organized  effort  to  drive 
the  Moors  out  of  Spain  came  to  an  end,  for  the  latter,  retiring 
to  the  mountains  of  Granada,  maintained  themselves  for  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  longer,  only  to  be  finally  conquered  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

The  spirit  of  intolerance  engendered  by  these  long  wars 
against  the  Moors  came  to  its  final  flower  in  the  Spanish  In- 
quisition. In  1480  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  requested  authori- 
zation of  the  pope  for  the  appointment  of  themselves  as  in- 
quisitors to  root  out  heresy.  To  this  request  the  pope  readily 
consented,  and  in  September  of  that  year  a special  court  was 
established  at  Seville,  and  the  famous  Inquisition  began  its 
work.  At  first  the  Jews  and  Moors  were  not  subject  to  its 
jurisdiction,  but  on  March  20,  1492,  the  policy  in  this  respect 
was  changed,  and  all  the  Jews  were  ordered  either  to  change 
their  religion  or  leave  the  country  by  July 
31.  This  decree  instituted  one  of  the  most 
cruel  and  heartless  persecutions  in  history. 
Thus  the  same  year  which  saw  the  discovery  of  America  and 
the  capture  of  Granada  saw  the  expulsion  of  at  least  one  hun- 
dred thousand  Jews  and  the  enforced  conversion  of  many  more 
thousands.  In  1500  the  Moors  were  likewise  brought  under 


The  Spanish 
Inquisition 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  BACKGROUND  17 


the  jurisdiction  of  the  Inquisition  and  their  enforced  conver- 
sion or  expulsion  followed. 

By  the  year  1500  Spain  had  become  the  Catholic  nation, 
par  excellence,  and  her  monarchs  were  known  as  the  most 
Catholic  kings.  She  had  become  the  eldest  daughter  of  the 
papacy  and  the  chief  agent  in  carrying  out  the  papal  policy 
throughout  the  world. 

Another  result  of  the  long  wars  against  the  Moors  was  the 
fact  that  war  and  religion  came  to  be  the  dominant  interests 
in  the  life  of  the  peninsula.  In  the  early  years  of  the  struggle 
against  the  Moors  refugees  fled  northward,  where  they  lived 
in  the  mountain  fastnesses.  There  they  occupied  themselves 
in  fighting  and  plundering,  and  every  man  of  them  considered 

„ . himself  an  hidalgo  or  a knight.  And  this  was 

IV.  War  and  Religion  , . , 

Become  the  Dominant  not  only  true  in  the  early  days,  but  con- 

^t*rests  “* the  Life  tinued  to  be  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  Span- 
ish society.  Every  pure-blooded  Spaniard 
considered  himself  as  belonging  to  at  least  the  lower  order  of 
the  nobility,  and  there  were  but  two  occupations  a noble 
Spaniard  might  honorably  enter — the  army  and  the  church. 

Spanish  society  in  the  sixteenth  century  seemed  to  exist  for 
the  church  rather  than  the  church  for  society.  In  this  century 
there  were  in  Spain  “58  archbishoprics,  684  bishoprics,  11,400 
monasteries,  23,000  brotherhoods,  46,000  monks,  13,000  nuns, 
312,000  secular  priests,  and  more  than  400,000  ecclesiastics, 
while  there  were  80,000  civil  servants,  and  367,000  other 
officials.”  All  these  ministered  to  a population  of  perhaps  six 
millions  of  people.  So  devoted  to  religion  and  its  practices 
was  Spain  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  that  there 
were  actually  more  holy  days  than  there  were  days  in  the  year; 
thus  a pious  Spanish  layman  might  devote  every  day  in  the 
year  to  religious  observances.  During  the  reign  of  Ferdinand 
Importance  of  Religion  and  Isabella  the  reform  of  the  Spanish  church 
in  Spain  in  the  had  been  accomplished,  under  the  direction 

sixteenth  Century  0f  the  great  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  the 

Spanish  church  served  as  a model  for  the  reform  of  the  whole 
Catholic  Church  at  the  Council  of  Trent.  Accordingly,  the 
Spanish  conquistador  of  America  was  imbued  with  the  typical 


18 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


religious  ideas  of  his  country;  to  spread  religion  and  to  convert 
the  natives  of  the  New  World  was  one  of  the  chief  motives 
which  led  him  to  undertake  discovery  and  colonization.  To 
him  religion  and  war  had  always  been  closely  allied.  The  long 
wars  against  the  Moors  had  been  waged  largely  on  account  of 
religion,  and  therefore  to  force  Christianity  upon  the  natives 
of  America  by  means  of  the  sword  was  the  most  natural  thing 
in  the  world  for  him  to  attempt.  Again  and  again  in  the  ac- 
counts of  the  Spanish  conquest  of  America  it  will  be  necessary 
to  remember  the  peculiar  religious  conditions  in  Spain  in  order 
to  understand  the  occurrences  and  actions  of  the  conquista- 
dor es. 

All  this  had  a far-reaching  effect  upon  the  economic  life  of 
Spain.  The  Spaniard  was  not  a producer  of  wealth.  He  looked 
with  contempt  upon  trade;  he  neglected  his  fields,  while  he 
entertained  a low  opinion  of  the  industrial  classes  and  of  those 
who  were  the  producers  of  wealth.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
Spain  was  a very  poor  country,  for  not  only  was  agriculture 
neglected  but  industry  of  all  sorts  was  at  a low  stage  of  devel- 
opment. The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  and  the  Moors  was  a great 
blow  to  the  economic  life  of  the  country.  The  Jews  controlled 
certain  lines  of  industry,  and  had  been  the  bankers  and  money- 
lenders time  out  of  mind.  The  Moors  were  even  more  im- 
portant economically  than  were  the  Jews,  for  they  were  the 
tillers  of  the  soil  and  the  raisers  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  When  these  two  classes  were  brought 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Inquisition  and 
many  thousands  of  them  were  compelled  to  flee  the  country, 
Spain  lost  her  most  important  economic  classes.  Never  were 
economic  laws  more  disregarded  than  in  Spain.  The  industrial 
and  economic  condition  seemed  to  be  the  last  thing  to  be  taken 
into  account,  while  every  interest  had  to  give  way  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  holy  Catholic  faith.  One  can  hardly  help  but 
admire  this  supreme  contempt  for  worldly  interests. 

In  the  year  1512  the  Florentine  historian  Guicciardini  was 
sent  into  Spain  by  his  government  to  learn  all  that  he  could  of 
that  country.  He  remained  in  Spain  for  two  years,  and  at  the 
end  of  his  investigation  made  a careful  report  of  what  he  had 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  BACKGROUND  19 


observed.  Speaking  of  the  population  he  says,  “Spain  is  thinly 
populated,  so  that  towns  and  burgs  are  rare,  and  between  one 
great  town  and  another  scarcely  a house  will  be  found.”  Aside 
from  the  great  centers,  most  of  the  towns  were  small  and  had 
rude  buildings.  The  land  was  very  fertile  but  poorly  culti- 
vated. Of  the  Spaniard  he  says:  “The  men  of  this  nation  are 
gloomy  of  temperament  and  swarthy  of  complexion.  . . . they 
are  proud  by  nature,  and  it  seems  to  them  as  if  no  nation  could 
be  compared  with  theirs.  . . . They  have  little  love  for  for- 
eigners, and  are  very  uncivil  toward  them.  They  are  devoted 
to  arms,  perhaps  more  than  any  other  Christian  nation.  . . . 
In  military  matters  they  are  great  sticklers  for  honor.”  In 
regard  to  trade  he  observes:  “The  natives  do  not  devote 
themselves  to  trade,  which  they  look  upon  as  degrading;  the 
pride  of  the  hidalgo  goes  to  his  head,  and  he  would  rather  turn 
to  arms  with  little  chance  of  gain,  or  serve  a grandee  in  wretch- 
edness and  poverty,  or  before  the  time  of  the  present  king,  even 
„ . . assault  wayfarers,  than  engage  in  trade  or 

Spain  in  1512,  as  . , ° 

Described  by  the  any  other  business.  . . . The  whole  nation  is 
GuicriI^nfiSt0rian  opposed  to  industry.  Accordingly,  the  ar- 
tisans only  work  when  they  are  driven  to 
do  so  by  necessity,  and  then  they  take  their  ease  until  they 
have  spent  their  earnings;  this  is  the  reason  why  manual  labor 
is  so  dear.  The  meanest  cultivators  of  the  soil  have  the  same 
habit.  . . . Aside  from  a few  grandees  of  the  kingdom  who 
display  great  luxury,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  rest  of 
the  people  live  at  home  in  utmost  straits,  and  if  they  have  a 
little  to  spend  they  put  it  all  on  their  backs  or  in  purchasing  a 
mule,  thus  making  a great  show  before  the  world  when  they 
have  scarce  anything  at  home,  where  they  exercise  an  economy 
truly  astonishing.”  Although  they  live  on  very  little,  yet 
they  are  by  no  means  free  from  cupidity,  and  are  in  fact  very 
avaricious;  and  not  having  anything  in  the  way  of  the  arts  to 
rely  upon,  they  are  driven  to  robbing  and  plundering.  The  re- 
ligion of  the  Spaniard,  according  to  Guicciardini,  is  extremely 
superficial.  Outwardly  they  seem  very  religious  but  inwardly 
have  little.  “They  have  infinite  ceremonies,  which  they  per- 
form with  great  exactness,  and  show  much  humility  in  speech, 


20 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


the  use  of  titles,  and  the  kissing  of  hands.  Everyone  is  their 
lord,  everyone  may  command  them;  but  this  means  little,  and 
you  can  place  no  faith  in  them.”  Such  was  the  Spaniard  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  seen  by  a contemporary. 

When  the  Spaniard  came  to  America  he  came  with  three 
chief  motives:  (1)  He  was  hungry  for  adventure.  The  closing 
of  the  wars  with  the  Moors  had  thrown  many  Spanish  knights 
out  of  employment,  but  the  opening  of  America  was  to  them  a 
door  of  hope,  a new  field  for  the  exercise  of  arms,  and  the  pros- 
pects of  new  conquests  appealed  to  them  as  a golden  oppor- 
tunity. (2)  He  came  with  a sincere  desire  to  spread  the  Cath- 
olic faith,  and  in  the  midst  of  all  his  various  activities  in  Amer- 
ica he  never  lost  sight  of  his  religious  program;  with  hardly  an 
exception,  priests  accompanied  every  expedition,  and  no  op- 
portunity was  neglected  of  establishing  Christian  worship 
among  the  natives.  (3)  He  came  searching  for  wealth.  In- 
finitely poor,  and  having  no  means  of  gaining  wealth  at  home, 
the  Spanish  knight  came  to  the  New  World  for  gold,  and  his 
desire  was  insatiable.  These  three  motives  explain  practically 
every  act  of  the  Spaniard  in  America. 

READING  REFERENCES 

For  further  reading  the  following  books  will  be  found  helpful: 

Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  Vol.  I,  by  Justin  Winsor. 

Four  volumes  from  the  Story  of  the  Nations  Series:  Spain,  by  Edward 
E.  Hale  and  Susan  Hale;  The  Moors  in  Spain,  by  Stanley  Lane-Poole;  The 
Christian  Recovery  of  Spain,  by  Henry  Edward  Watts;  The  Story  of  Por- 
tugal, by  H.  Morse  Stephens  (New  York,  G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  1901). 

European  Background  of  American  History,  by  E.  P.  Cheyney  (Harpers, 
1904).  Chapter  V discusses  the  Spanish  Monarchy  at  the  time  of  Columbus. 

A History  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain,  by  H.  C.  Lea  (The  Macmillan 
Company).  Vol.  I,  Chapters  I-IV,  is  the  best  account  of  the  growth  of 
intolerance  in  Spain.  A more  detailed  history  of  Spain  is  Burk’s  History 
of  Spain,  edited  by  Martin  A.  S.  Hume  (Longmans,  Green,  1900). 

In  the  American  Historical  Association  Reports  for  1893,  pp.  125-133, 
will  be  found  an  article  on  “Economic  Conditions  of  Spain  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century,”  by  Bernard  Moses. 

Fortunately  for  the  student  of  Latin  American  affairs,  the  two  volumes 
of  Professor  R.  B.  Merriman  on  The  Rise  of  the  Spanish  Empire  (The 
Macmillan  Company,  1918)  have  appeared.  Vol.  I treats  of  Spain  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  while  Vol.  II  discusses  the  reigns  of  the  Catholic  kings. 


CHAPTER  II 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  AND  NATIVE  RACES  OF 
LATIN  AMERICA 

I.  Physical  Aspects 

Latin  America,  including  South  America,  Central  America, 
and  the  Spanish  West  Indies,  covers  an  area  of  more  than 
8,000,000  square  miles.  The  approximate  area  of  Mexico  and 
the  Central  American  states  is  1,000,000  square  miles,  while 
the  area  of  the  Spanish  West  Indies  is  nearly  100,000  square 
miles,  leaving  for  South  America  proper  an  area  of  over  7,000,- 
000  square  miles.  The  greatest  breadth  of  South  America  is 
3,500  miles,  and  its  greatest  length  4,600  miles,  while  the  dis- 
tance from  the  northern  boundary  of  Mexico  to  the  extreme 
southern  boundary  of  Chile  is  nearly  7,000  miles.  Latin  America 
occupies  more  than  half  the  area  of  the  American  continents, 
and  the  largest  Latin  American  state,  Brazil,  is  larger  than  the 
United  States,  without  Alaska,  and  larger  than  all  Europe 
without  Russia.  When  we  glance  at  the  dimensions  of  the 
countries  covering  the  continent  and  compare  them  with 
others  with  which  we  are  more  familiar,  we 
America LatlD  will  perhaps  get  a better  idea  of  the  size  of 

the  territory  occupied  by  Latin  America. 
The  little  new  Republic  of  Panama  is  larger  than  two  Switzer- 
lands,  Switzerland  having  an  area  of  15,976  square  miles,  while 
Panama  has  33,000  square  miles.  Uruguay,  the  smallest  of 
the  republics  in  South  America  proper,  has  an  area  of  72,210 
square  miles,  which  is  larger  than  England,  and  is  over  3,000 
square  miles  larger  than  the  six  New  England  States.  The 
republics  of  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Bolivia,  and  Peru  range 
from  364,000  to  695,733  square  miles,  the  smallest  of  them 
being  larger  than  France  and  Spain  combined.  Argentina, 
with  an  area  of  1,135,840  square  miles,  is  larger  than  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  If  we  should  lay  Argentina 
upon  the  continent  of  North  America,  it  would  reach  from  the 
southern  tip  of  Florida  to  northern  Labrador. 

21 


22 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


From  the  standpoint  of  land  relief  South  America  proper 
may  be  divided  into  four  divisions:  (1)  the  great  Andean 
Mountain  chain,  which  is  the  most  striking  feature  of  the  con- 
tinent, with  the  narrow  plain  lying  between  it  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean;  (2)  the  great  plateau  of  Brazil,  with  the  two  coastal 
mountain  ranges,  spreading  westward  and  northward  to  the 
heart  of  the  continent;  (3)  the  highlands  of  Guiana  and  Vene- 
zuela between  the  Orinoco  and  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon; 
and  (4)  the  lowlands  that  spread  out  along  the  three  main  lines 
of  continental  drainage,  namely,  the  Orinoco,  the  Amazon,  and 
the  Paraguay  basins. 

Everything  in  South  America  is  on  a grand  scale.  The 
mountains  are  the  highest  in  the  western  hemisphere.  From 
Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  great  Cordillera 
follows  the  coast  line  closely.  The  coastal  plain  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea  has  an  average  width  of  forty  miles, 
and  when  the  weather  is  favorable  the  mountains  are  visible 
to  passengers  on  ocean  steamers  all  the  way  from  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  to  Panama.  South  of  the  forty-first  degree  south 
latitude,  the  coast  is  characterized  by  a vast  number  of  is- 
lands, “probably  produced  by  the  recent  submergence  of  a 
mountain  system  and  the  consequent  invasion  of  its  steep- 
sided valleys  by  the  ocean.”  The  islands  along  the  coast  are 
but  the  high  portion  of  these  mountains  which  remain  above 
water.  North  of  the  forty-first  degree  the  coast  is  but  little 
indented,  and  there  are  few  harbors.  From 
Jnd  about  thirty  degrees  south  to  Guayaquil  the 

coast  is  sandy,  arid,  and  barren,  and  is  one 
of  the  dryest  portions  of  the  earth.  The  streams  which  flow 
from  the  mountains  are  short,  and  many  of  the  smaller  ones 
do  not  reach  the  sea,  but  are  lost  in  the  sands  of  the  desert. 
From  Guayaquil  to  Panama  the  coast  is  covered  with  a tropical 
vegetation. 

The  Andean  range  is  about  4,400  miles  long.  In  the  south- 
ern part  there  is  but  a single  range;  from  northern  Argentina 
through  the  central  part  there  are  two  ranges,  while  in  the 
north  there  are  three.  Upon  the  Cordilleran  ridge  rise  some  of 
the  highest  peaks  in  the  world,  though  various  authorities 


Pt.  Gallinasj 


CARIBBEAN  SEA 


jy^niu* 


Cotopaxi 


Pt.  Parina  (i/f 


•LATEAI 
, OF 
BOLIVIA 


Iouut 


Aconcagi 


Juan  Fernandez  I. 


PHYSICAL  MAP  OF 

South  America.. 


SCALE  OF  MILES. 


C.  Blanco 


Compurntivi 


Miles 


Falkland  Is. 


Strait  of 
k, Magellan 
STierrn  dt-lFuctro 


Cape  Horn_ 


SjiYp 

( A?  i i is 

I €w  - / 

W * “ — - 

J flUaitrlra  Fai1s(  f / 

' V "5“ 

</*V>  1 V ; 

h \ ( TA  B/L 

y*  o«  ) \ 

PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  AND  NATIVE  RACES  23 


Mountain  Peaks 


differ  in  their  estimates  of  their  elevations.  The  highest  of 
these  peaks  is  Aconcagua,  in  Argentina,  which  rises  to  the 
great  height  of  over  23,000  feet,  9,000  feet  higher  than  the 
highest  mountain  in  the  United  States.  There  are  sixteen 
known  peaks  scattered  along  the  range,  in 
Chile,  Argentina,  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and  Co- 
lombia, ranging  from  over  15,000  feet  to  23,000.  Cotopaxi,  Tun- 
guragua,  Maipo,  and  Sangai  are  the  highest  active  volcanoes 
in  the  world.  Many  glaciers  are  found  in  the  Andes,  even  under 
the  equator  itself,  the  largest  glaciers  being  found  in  the  south- 
ern part,  their  streams  emptying  into  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

The  eastern  side  of  the  continent  is  very  different  from  the 
western  side.  The  country  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  to  the 
southern  part  of  Brazil  is  flat,  and  is  called  the  La  Plata  pam- 
pas. It  is  much  like  the  plains  in  the  central  part  of  the  United 
States,  with  rich  alluvial  soil,  and  largely  destitute  of  timber. 
In  the  north  there  are  abundant  grasses,  suitable  for  pasturing 
cattle,  but  at  the  south  vegetation  is  stunted,  due  to  the  dry 
climate.  Between  the  valleys  of  the  La  Plata  and  the  Amazon 
is  a great  plateau  bordered  by  the  range  of  mountains  called 
the  Serro  do  Mar.  In  many  places  these 
mountains  come  down  to  the  coast,  giving 
the  shore  line  a most  picturesque  appearance, 
and  here  are  to  be  found  the  best  harbors  in  the  continent. 
North  of  latitude  twenty  degrees  the  mountains  swing  inland, 
and  the  coast  becomes  low-lying  to  the  seventeenth  degree, 
north  of  which  it  is  bordered  by  bluffs,  ranging  from  fifty  to 
two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  North  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  the  coast  is  low-lying  and  swampy  and  is  covered  with 
a dense  tropical  vegetation. 

The  eastern  side  of  the  continent  is  also  in  great  contrast  to 
the  western  in  the  number  and  size  of  the  rivers.  South  Amer- 
ica has  three  great  river  systems,  namely,  the  Orinoco,  the 
Amazon,  and  the  La  Plata.  These  three  great  systems  drain 
an  area  of  3,686,400  square  miles.  The  Orinoco  is  the  smallest 
of  the  largest  rivers,  but  it  is  1,450  miles  in  length,  and  with 
its  tributaries  has  many  miles  of  navigable  waters.  The  main 
stream,  during  the  most  favorable  season,  is  navigable  for  1,000 


The  Eastern  Side  of 
the  Continent 


24 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


miles.  The  La  Plata  includes  the  Parana,  the  Uruguay,  and 
the  Paraguay.  The  streams  coming  from  the  arid  regions  of 
the  west  are  brackish,  while  those  from  the  rainy,  wooded 
region  are  all  fresh  streams.  The  La  Plata  discharges  more 
water  into  the  ocean  than  does  the  Mississippi,  and  is  navi- 
gable for  ocean-going  vessels  from  1,200  to  1,300  miles  above 
Buenos  Ayres,  while  smaller  vessels  can  go  over  2,000  miles 
into  the  interior.  The  Amazon,  greatest  of  South  American 
rivers,  is  the  largest  in  the  world.  This  river  is  navigable  for 
3,000  miles,  while  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  some  30,000 
miles  of  navigable  waterways  in  the  Amazon  valley.  The 
Amazon  is  a sluggish  stream,  nowhere  confined  to  a single 
channel,  and  spreads  over  a vast  plain.  The  land  along  the 
stream  is  low  and  marshy,  and  at  times  under  water. 

Besides  these  three  great  river  systems,  there  are  several 
other  streams  of  considerable  size.  The  Magdalena  in  Co- 
lombia is  a large  river,  over  two  thousand  miles  long,  and  is 
navigable  for  a considerable  distance.  It  is  a very  muddy, 
crooked  stream.  The  San  Francisco  lies  wholly  in  Brazil,  and 
flows  northwestward  to  latitude  nine  degrees  thirty  minutes, 
when  it  bends  sharply  to  the  right  and  enters  the  Atlantic.  It 
flows  through  a mountainous  country  and  is  only  navigable 
for  150  miles  in  its  lower  course.  There  are  no  large  rivers 
smaller  South  flowing  into  the  Pacific,  the  Bio  Bio  in  cen- 

American  Rivers  and  tral  Chile  being  the  largest.  Most  of  the 
lakes  i n South  America  are  in  the  mountains, 
and  are  found  in  the  Andes  or  near  their  base.  Lake  Titicaca, 
in  northern  Bolivia,  is  the  largest,  covering  5,000  square  miles, 
and  is  12,545  feet  above  sea  level.  It  has  a maximum  depth 
of  700  feet  and  never  freezes  over.  Lake  Junin  near  Lima 
covers  an  area  of  200  square  miles,  and  is  over  13,000  feet 
above  sea  level.  In  southern  Argentina  is  a series  of  glacial 
lakes,  and  in  Venezuela  is  Lake  Maracaibo,  but  it  is  a bay 
rather  than  a lake. 

Much  of  South  America  lies  within  the  torrid  zone,  but 
because  of  high  elevations  temperate  conditions  prevail.  In 
the  western  part  of  the  continent  a large  part  of  the  popula- 
tion live  at  elevations  from  7,000  to  10,000  feet.  Two  thirds 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  AND  NATIVE  RACES  25 


of  South  America  is  within  the  torrid  zone,  and  one  third  in 
the  temperate,  yet  most  of  the  South  American  capitals  have  a 
temperate  climate.  Quito  lies  under  the  equator,  yet  with  an 


ful  climate  and  produce  grains  and  other  temperate  zone  plants. 
None  of  the  countries  of  South  America  are  without  large 
temperate  zone  districts. 

South  America  has  furnished  an  unusually  large  number  of 
the  world’s  useful  plants.  Among  them  are  valuable  dye  woods, 
such  as  Brazil  wood,  rubber-producing  plants,  cotton,  the 
potato,  tomato,  mandioca,  pineapple,  maize,  ipecac,  cocoa,  the 
chocolate  plant,  and  Paraguayan  tea.  The  Amazon  valley  is 
covered  with  a dense  growth  of  tropical  plants.  The  palm  in 


plants  have  likewise  been  introduced  into  South  America, 
such  as  the  banana,  sugar  cane,  orange  tree,  and  coffee  plant. 

Most  of  the  surface  of  Mexico  is  a great  plateau  bordered 
on  both  the  east  and  west  by  mountains,  with  a fringe  of  low 
lands  between  the  plateau  and  the  coast  on  either  side.  To 
the  extreme  south  there  is  a mountainous  section,  while  most 
of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  is  a low  table  land.  The  great 
central  plateau  at  its  greatest  elevation  is  8,000  feet  above 
sea  level,  while  in  the  northern  part  the  elevation  averages 
about  3,500  feet.  The  mountain  chain  on  the  west  is  known 
as  the  Sierra  Madre  Occidental,  which  consists  of  several 
parallel  ranges  with  their  own  names.  The  highest  elevations 
in  this  range  are  the  Nevado  de  Colima  (14,363  feet)  and  the 
Volcan  de  Colima  (12,750  feet).  The  eastern  range  is  called 
the  Sierra  Madre  Oriental.  In  the  northern  part  this  range  is 
low,  but  south  of  Tampico  it  reaches  a great  elevation,  cul- 
minating in  such  peaks  as  Orizaba  (18,209  feet)  and  Cofre  de 


elevation  of  nearly  two  miles  it  has  a delightful  climate.  Dis- 


Ciimate 


tricts  as  large  as  some  European  states  lie 
at  such  altitudes  as  to  have  a cool  and  health- 


Flora 


many  varieties  and  shapes  has  its  greatest 
development  here.  Tropical  and  subtropical 


Perote  (13,419  feet).  There  are  several 
ranges  which  cross  the  plateau,  to  some  of 
which  have  been  given  the  name  of  Cor- 


dillera de  Anahuac.  In  the  center  of  the  plateau  are  several 


26 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


snow-capped  volcanoes,  Popocatepetl  (Smoking  Mountain)  and 
Ixtaccihuatl  (White  Woman),  both  of  which  are  over  17,000 
feet  high.  This  part  of  Mexico  is  volcanic  in  character.  In 
the  center  of  the  plateau,  between  the  sixteenth  and  twentieth 
degrees,  is  a great  depression,  known  as  the  valley  of  Mexico, 
which  formerly  contained  a series  of  salt  lakes,  but  now  only 
small  lakes  and  marshy  lagoons  remain.  Mexico  has  no  large 
rivers,  most  of  the  streams  being  little  more  than  mountain 
torrents.  The  largest  rivers  are  the  Rio  Grande  Santiago, 
which  rises  in  the  state  of  Mexico  and  flows  westward  into  the 
Pacific;  the  Rio  de  las  Balsas,  which  rises  in  Tlaxcala  and 
flows  southwest  into  the  Pacific;  and  the  Yaqui,  which  rises 
in  the  state  of  Chihuahua  and  flows  westward  into  the  Gulf 
of  California.  The  longest  of  these  rivers  is  only  540  miles  in 
length,  and  none  of  them  are  important  as  navigable  streams. 

Like  South  America,  Mexico  has  a great  variety  of  climate, 
due  to  varying  elevations.  The  climate  of  Mexico  is  deter- 
mined by  vertical  zones.  The  low-lying  coast,  called  the  tierras 
calientes,  ranging  in  width  from  30  to  40  miles,  has  a tropical 
temperature.  The  next  zone  is  the  tierra  templada,  or  sub- 
tropical zone,  which  rises  to  an  elevation  of 
5,577  feet  and  embraces  a territory  from  50 
to  100  miles  broad  on  both  sides  of  the  country.  Above  this  is 
the  tierra  fria,  which  includes  the  highest  portions  of  the 
plateau,  and  has  a temperature  corresponding  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  United  States. 

The  chief  physical  features  of  Central  America  are  the 
mountain  chains  which  traverse  the  country  from  end  to  end. 
The  mountains  are  nearer  the  Pacific  than  the  Atlantic,  except 
in  Costa  Rica  and  Panama,  where  they  are  almost  equidistant 
from  the  two  oceans.  The  mountains  are  volcanic  and  there 
are  many  active  craters.  The  country  is  mostly  covered  with 
a dense  tropical  growth,  and  for  that  reason  much  of  it  is  still 
imperfectly  surveyed.  The  rivers,  especially  on  the  Pacific 
side,  are  little  more  than  mountain  torrents, 
Safari™ °f  though  on  the  Atlantic  side  the  Segovia,  in 
Nicaragua  and  Honduras,  has  a course  450 
miles  in  length.  There  are  several  mountain  lakes,  Lake 


Climate  of  Mexico 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  AND  NATIVE  RACES  27 


Nicaragua,  the  largest,  having  an  area  of  3,500  square  miles. 
Like  Mexico,  the  climate  of  Central  America  depends  upon 
the  elevation.  British  Honduras  and  Guatemala  have  a hot 
climate,  while  Salvador  and  Costa  Rica,  due  to  high  elevations, 
have  a temperate  climate.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  ranging  from 
50  to  200  inches. 

The  West  India  islands  are  the  summits  of  submerged  moun- 
tain chains,  and  both  Cuba  and  Haiti  are  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous. Cuba  has  mountains  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
though  not  continuous.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  island  is 
high  and  rugged,  to  the  west  of  which  are  open  plains,  which 
in  turn  give  way  to  another  rough  and  broken  region ; the  region 
about  Habana  is  flat  and  rolling,  while  the  extreme  western 
end  of  the  island  is  again  mountainous.  Cuba  has  a great 
number  of  short  streams,  the  Cauto  in  the  east  part  of  the 
island  being  the  longest.  One  of  the  peculiarities  of  Cuba  is 

the  great  number  of  caves  and  caverns,  the 

Cuba  and  Haiti  . ’ 

island  being  largely  underlaid  with  limestone. 
The  climate  is  tropical,  with  heavy  rainfall,  though  droughts 
of  long  duration  are  not  uncommon.  Haiti  is  far  more  rugged 
than  Cuba,  mountains  covering  the  whole  island,  reaching  al- 
most everywhere  to  the  coast,  there  being  only  here  and  there 
a few  strips  of  beach.  There  is  a central  range  running  from 
east  to  west,  while  to  the  north  and  south  are  other  ranges. 
Haiti  has  four  fair-sized  rivers  and  several  mountain  lakes. 
Owing  to  the  more  general  elevation  Haiti  has  a greater  variety 
of  climate  than  the  other  islands  of  the  group.  There  is  an 
abundant  rainfall. 

II.  Native  Races 


Native  Races  in  Latin 
America 


The  native  races,  which  the  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese 
found  in  South  and  Central  America,  and  in  the  West  Indies, 
may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes: 
(1)  the  naked  savages,  who  were  found  on 
the  islands  and  east  of  the  Andes  in  South 
America;  (2)  the  semicivilized  Indians,  inhabiting  the  territory 
west  of  the  Andes  in  South  America,  such  as  the  Peruvians,  in 
the  highlands  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Ecuador,  and  the  Mayas 
of  Yucatan,  and  the  Aztecs  in  Mexico. 


28 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  savages  whom  Columbus  and  his  successors  found  upon 
the  islands  of  Haiti  and  Cuba  were  a mild  race,  described  by 
the  Spaniards  as  feeble  in  intellect  and  also  physically  defec- 
tive. The  number  of  Indians  on  the  islands  at  the  coming  of 
the  Spaniards  has  been  doubtless  greatly  exaggerated,  though 

The  Native  Population  tbere  must  bave  been  a considerable  popula- 
on  the  islands  Haiti  tion.  These  people  lived  in  rude  huts,  and 
practiced  a limited  and  extremely  primitive 
agriculture.  The  island  Indians  were  soon  exterminated  by 
the  Spaniards  and  there  is  hardly  a trace  of  them  remaining. 
Little  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  archaeological  study,  and 
nothing  of  the  language  or  traditions  of  the  aborigines  has 
survived. 

The  chief  tribes  inhabiting  South  America  east  of  the  Andes 
were  the  Caribs  in  the  north,  in  what  is  now  Venezuela;  the 
Arawaks,  occupying  the  Guianas;  the  Tupi  Indians,  found  in 
Brazil  along  the  Amazon  valley;  and  the  Pampas  Indians,  in 
Argentina.  The  Caribs  were  a fierce,  warlike  race,  and  stoutly 
resisted  the  Spaniards.  They  were  cannibals,  and  for  that 
reason  were  terrifying  to  the  earliest  explorers,  along  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America.  The  Caribs  were  also  found 
in  some  of  the  smaller  islands  of  the  West  India  group.  The 
Arawaks  were  much  milder  than  the  Caribs.  They  were  peace- 
ful agriculturists,  and  were  the  most  civilized  of  all  the  races 
found  in  northeastern  South  America,  being  weavers  of  cloth 
and  workers  in  metals.  The  most  important  of  the  Amazon 

The  Native  Races  in  tHbeS  Were  the  TuPb  TheSe  tribeS  C0Vered 
Eastern  South  the  territory  from  the  Amazon  to  the  south- 

ern part  of  what  is  now  Brazil,  and  made 
up  perhaps  the  most  numerous  race.  The  Pampas  Indians 
were  those  tribes  inhabiting  the  great  plains  of  Argentina. 
These  Indians  were  divided  into  many  different  tribes,  though 
they  possessed  common  characteristics.  They  were  warlike, 
and  the  hostility  of  the  tribes  living  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
de  La  Plata  was  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  Spaniards 
were  unsuccessful  in  their  first  three  attempts  to  establish 
Buenos  Ayres. 

The  Araucanians  composed  a group  of  tribes  living  in  south- 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  AND  NATIVE  RACES  29 


em  Chile.  They  were  an  extremely  warlike  and  brave  people, 
and  their  long  wars  with  the  Spaniards,  in  which  they  were 
never  completely  conquered,  have  given  them  a distinction  be- 
yond that  of  any  other  group  of  natives.  Their  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  a military  aristocracy.  They  followed  agricul- 
ture, built  houses,  though  as  a whole  they  remained  cruel 
savages.  North  of  the  Araucanians  lived  the 
and  Peru*13  °f  CMe  Indians  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  to  whom  the 
term  “Incas”  is  generally  applied,  though  the 
two  chief  tribes  were  the  Quichuas  of  Peru,  and  the  Aymards 
of  Bolivia.  In  Ecuador  were  the  Caras,  while  in  Colombia 
lived  the  Chibchas.  All  of  these  people  had  reached  a high 
state  of  civilization,  though  it  is  generally  conceded  that  the 
Incas  of  Peru  had  developed  to  the  highest  degree. 

The  capital  of  the  Inca  kingdom  was  at  Cuzco,  north  of  Lake 
Titicaca,  Lake  Titicaca  being  the  primitive  center  of  the  civili- 
zation of  this  region.  The  Incas  developed  a strong  govern- 
ment of  a paternal  character,  and  a highly  intensive  agriculture, 
building  terraces  up  the  mountain  sides,  and  using  fertilizers 
and  irrigation.  They  were  the  only  people  in  America  to  do- 
mesticate a beast  of  burden,  the  llama,  which  they  employed 
not  only  as  a beast  of  burden  but  also  for  food.  They  raised 
potatoes,  maize,  and  cotton;  they  obtained  fine  wool  from  the 
alpaca,  which  they  wove  into  cloth  and  blankets.  They  were 
also  skillful  workers  in  metals,  which  they  used  for  ornaments 
and  utensils,  but  not  for  a medium  of  ex- 
Ze^r,0a  01  change.  They  erected  huge  buildings,  put- 
ting the  stones  together  without  mortar, 
cutting  them  to  fit  so  accurately  that  even  yet,  in  the  finest 
examples  of  their  stone  work,  a knife  blade  cannot  be  inserted 
in  the  crevices.  These  remarkable  people  also  constructed 
roads,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  visible.  At  the  time  the 
Spaniards  came  to  America  the  Inca  kingdom  extended  from 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  presefit  Republic  of  Ecuador  to 
the  center  of  Chile,  a distance  of  nearly  three  thousand  miles. 
This  was  by  far  the  largest  single  kingdom  developed  among 
the  native  races  in  America. 

Inhabiting  what  is  now  Colombia  were  the  Chibchas,  a peo- 


30 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


pie  almost  as  far  along  in  civilization  as  the  natives  of  Peru. 
They  were  skillful  weavers  of  cloth  and  were  adept  as  potters. 
They  lived  in  houses  and  erected  great  temples.  They  too  had 


currency  in  the  form  of  gold  disks.  Like  the  Aymaras  and  the 
Quichuas,  they  were  skilled  workers  in  the  precious  metals,  which 
they  wrought  into  ornaments  for  personal  adornment  and  for 
use  in  their  temples. 

The  chief  inhabitants  of  Central  America  and  Mexico,  at 
the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  were  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico  and 
the  Mayas  of  Central  America  and  Yucatan.  There  has  been 
discovered  in  Yucatan,  Guatemala,  and  Honduras  the  ruins  of 
several  ancient  cities,  which  are  said  to  be  of  greater  extent 
and  superior  in  every  way  to  any  of  the  ruins  to  be  found  in 
Mexico.  At  the  time  the  Spaniards  came  most  of  these  cities 


time  of  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  the  tribes  in  Yucatan 
were  found  to  be  hostile  and  skilled  warriors,  and  gave 
the  discoverers  much  trouble.  [They  wore  clothing  made 
of  cotton  and,  like  the  Aztecs,  had  developed  a form  of 
picture-writing.  Mr.  Bancroft  thinks  that  the  Maya  civ- 
ilization was  much  older  than  that  of  Mexico,  and  that 
Central  America  was  the  most  ancient  home  of  civilization  in 
America. 

The  most  remarkable  civilization  with  which  the  Spaniards 
came  in  contact  was  that  of  the  confederated  tribes  in  Mexico, 
under  their  emperor  Montezuma.  The  valley  of  Mexico  was 
the  seat,  however,  of  a much  more  ancient  civilization  than 
that  which  the  Spaniards  found.  It  is  supposed  that  in  the 
sixth  century  a tribe,  known  as  the  Toltecs,  built  up  a civiliza- 
tion in  the  valley.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  Toltecs  were 
driven  out  by  a ruder  people,  who  occupied  the  territory  for  a 
time,  but  were  finally  conquered  by  the  tribe  we  know  as  the 


carried  agriculture  to  a high  degree  of  suc- 
cess and  lived  under  an  absolute  government 
which  severely  punished  crime.  The  Chib- 


chas  are  credited  with  a system  of  weights  and  measures  and  a 


The  Indians  of 
Central  America 


were  abandoned,  but  they  give  undoubted 
evidence  that  there  once  existed  in  Central 
America  a highly  developed  empire.  At  the 


PHYSICAL  ASPECTS  AND  NATIVE  RACES  31 


Aztecs.  When  the  Spaniards  came  into  Mexico  the  Aztecs  had 
been  in  control  of  the  valley  for  about  two 

The  Aztecs  of  Mexico  . _ 

hundred  years.  The  Aztecs  were  skilled  agri- 
culturists, cultivating  a great  variety  of  crops;  they  lived  in 
well-built  cities,  some  of  which  impressed  the  Spaniards  as 
more  beautiful  than  many  in  Spain.  The  capital  of  the  empire 
was  the  City  of  Mexico,  located  in  the  largest  of  the  salt  lakes, 
in  the  valley,  and  was  a most  wonderful  city  from  the  stand- 
point of  both  size  and  beauty,  if  we  can  trust  the  reports  of  the 
Spanish  conquerors.  There  were  a well-ordered  government,  a 
judicial  system,  almost  modem  in  its  organization,  and  written 
laws.  The  religion  of  the  Aztecs,  however,  was  very  repulsive 
to  the  Spaniards,  because  of  the  prevalence  of  human  sacrifice, 
though  in  other  respects  it  compared  favorably  with  some  of 
the  higher  forms  of  religion. 

READING  REFERENCES 

For  further  reading  on  the  geography  of  Latin  America:  Stanford's 
Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travel:  Central  and  South  America,  by 
A.  H.  Keane  (2  vols.,  Lippincott),  will  be  found  most  valuable. 

The  best  present-day  description  of  South  American  Geography,  by  a 
trained  traveler  and  observer,  is  South  America:  Observations  and  Im- 
pressions, by  James  Bryce  (The  Macmillan  Company). 

Most  of  the  popular  books  on  South  America  devote  considerable 
space  to  description  and  geography,  such  as  The  Republics  of  Central  and 
South  America,  by  C.  Reginald  Enock  (Charles  Scribner’s  Sons). 

The  article  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (11th  Ed.)  is  a good  brief 
account  of  South  American  geography. 

The  fullest  discussion  of  the  native  races  in  Mexico  and  Central  America 
will  be  found  in  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States,  by  H.  H.  Bancroft,  5 vols. 
(1874-1876). 

In  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  by  William  H.  Prescott,  Vol.  I 
(New  York,  1852),  will  be  found  an  elaborate  description  of  Mexican 
civilization;  The  Conquest  of  Peru,  Vol.  I,  Book  I,  by  the  same  author, 
contains  a similar  discussion  of  the  civilization  of  the  Incas.  Yucatan,  by 
J.  L.  Stephens  (New  York,  1843),  is  an  old  but  reliable  account  of  the 
archaeological  remains  of  Central  America.  Other  books  dealing  with  the 
native  races  are  Central  American  and  West  Indian  Archaeology,  by  T.  A. 
Joyce  (1916);  also  by  the  same  author  Mexican  Archaeology  (1914);  and 
South  American  Archaeology  (1912). 


CHAPTER  III 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  IN 
AMERICA 

Back  of  the  discovery  of  America  lies  a long  period  in  which 
the  people  of  western  Europe  were  gradually  becoming  better 
acquainted  with  the  world  immediately  about  them,  and  during 
which  travelers  and  explorers  were  busy  acquiring  skill  and 
experience  for  larger  and  more  important  discoveries.  The 
first  government  to  undertake  exploration  was  that  of  the  little 
country  of  Portugal.  Portugal  from  the  thirteenth  century 
. , had  been  interested  in  trade  and  commerce. 

Portugal  the  First 

European  state  to  For  many  years  her  ports  had  had  direct 
Become  interested  in  commercial  relations  with  Flanders,  and 

Discovery  # 

by  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century 
fleets  from  Venice  made  regular  voyages  to  Lisbon.  Thus 
Portugal  became  interested  in  the  products  of  the  east,  and 
when  in  1263  she  succeeded  in  conquering  the  little  Moorish 
kingdom  of  Algarves,  situated  in  what  is  now  the  southern  part 
of  Portugal,  she  was  given  a southern  as  well  as  a western  sea- 
coast,  which  was  an  added  incentive  for  increasing  her  Medi- 
terranean trade.  The  chief  reason,  however,  why  Portugal  led 
Europe  in  discovery  and  exploration  was  because  of  the  en- 
thusiasm and  devotion  of  one  man,  who  has  become  known  to 
history  as  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator. 

Prince  Henry  was  the  fourth  son  of  King  John  II  of  Portugal. 
As  a young  man  he  had  taken  part  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Moors  in  Africa,  and  from  this  experience  his  interest  in  the 
continent  to  the  south  of  Portugal  began.  In  the  year  1419  he 
established  his  residence  on  the  rock  of  Sarges,  the  extreme 
southwestern  extension  of  Europe,  and  there  for  a period  of 
forty  years  he  devoted  his  energy  to  the  task  of  finding  a way 
around  Africa.  He  had  no  family,  and  the  income  from  his 
estates  was  lavished  on  this  project  to  which  he  had  dedicated 

32 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  33 


his  life.  Upon  this  barren  rock  he  built  an  observatory,  the  first 
his  country  had  seen,  and  here  he  gathered 
Henryk  the  Navigator  about  him  seamen  and  adventurers,  and  a 

school  of  navigation  and  mapmaking  was 
established.  From  1420  to  the  year  of  his  death  in  1460  this 
Portuguese  prince  sent  out  voyage  after  voyage  to  the  south- 
ward. During  the  first  ten  years  of  his  endeavor  the  Madeiras 
and  the  Azores  were  rediscovered,  and  their  permanent  coloni- 
zation begun.  It  took  twenty-five  years  for  the  sailors  of  the 
prince  to  get  as  far  south  as  Cape  Verde,  which  was  finally 
reached  in  1445  by  Fernandez  Diaz.  In  successive  years 
other  voyages  reached  farther  and  farther  southward,  but  the 
prince  died  before  he  had  accomplished  the  circumnavigation 
of  Africa.  Fortunately,  his  work  did  not  cease  with  his  death, 
for  the  adventurous  navigators  he  had  trained  continued  their 
voyaging,  supported  by  the  Portuguese  king.  Finally,  in  1486, 
Bartholomew  Diaz  rounded  the  Capes  of  Africa,  and  ten  years 
later  Vasco  da  Gama,  the  greatest  of  all  the  Portuguese  navi- 
gators, sailed  around  Africa  to  India,  and  returned  with  a 
cargo  of  spices,  which  we  are  told  brought  sixty  times  over  the 
cost  of  the  expedition.  In  the  meantime  a brisk  trade  was 
springing  up  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  Portuguese  mis- 
sionaries were  being  sent  to  the  Congo. 

Thus  for  considerably  over  a half  century  Portugal  was 
active  in  discovery  and  navigation  before  Spain  entered  the 
field.  It  was,  in  fact,  these  voyages  of  the  Portuguese  navi- 
gators that  led  Columbus  to  think  of  sailing  westward  to  find 
a new  route  to  the  Indies.  “It  was  in  Portugal  that  the  Admiral 
began  to  surmise  that  if  men  could  sail  so  far  south,  one  might 
also  sail  west  and  find  lands  in  that  direction,”  said  Ferdinand 
Columbus,  who  was  the  first  biographer  of  his  father.  In  1470 
Columbus,  a native  of  Genoa,  was  attracted  to  Lisbon,  then 
the  great  center  of  maritime  adventure.  Before  this,  however, 
Columbus  had  been  interested  in  discovery,  having  been  con- 
nected with  ships  and  affairs  of  the  sea  since 
on  Columbus  his  early  boyhood.  It  is  quite  certain  that  he 

had  made  several  voyages  of  discovery  pre- 
vious to  the  great  voyage.  He  had  visited  the  Madeira  and 


34 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Canary  Islands,  and  had  gone  on  a voyage  around  the  African 
coast.  He  had  also  been  an  eager  student  of  books  of  travel, 
which  were  beginning  to  become  quite  numerous,  and  his  copy 
of  Marco  Polo’s  travels  may  still  be  seen,  giving  proof  of  his 
interest  by  its  marginal  jottings  and  thumb  marks.  Columbus 
appealed  to  the  Portuguese  king  for  help  in  an  undertaking  to 
find  the  way  to  the  Indies  by  sailing  westward,  but  the  Por- 
tuguese were  so  engrossed  in  their  interest  in  finding  the  way 
around  Africa  that  Columbus  was  not  able  to  gain  the  assistance 
he  sought.  He  was  received  kindly  by  the  Portuguese  king, 
however,  and  a council  of  scientific  men  was  called  to  consider 
the  plan,  though  they  pronounced  it  visionary.  But  in  spite 
of  this,  the  Portuguese  sought  to  anticipate  Columbus,  and  we 
are  told  that  a ship  was  sent  westward,  which  received  the  in- 
struction to  follow  the  plan  outlined  by  Columbus.  The  sailors, 
however,  not  having  their  hearts  in  the  matter,  failed  to  sail 
far  enough  westward. 

Columbus  next  tried  to  interest  the  Genoese  government  in 
his  plan,  but  without  success.  It  was  after  these  rebuffs  that 
he  set  out  for  Spain,  arriving  there  in  1485.  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  were  then  engaged  in  the  conquest  of  Granada,  and  were 
with  their  army  at  Cordoba.  Here  Columbus  presented  him- 
self to  the  Queen’s  chaplain,  to  whom  a kindly  abbot  had  given 
him  letters  of  introduction,  but  the  cleric  received  him  coldly 
and  refused  to  present  him  to  the  queen.  And  it  is  little  to  be 
wondered  at  that  Columbus  was  refused  an  audience  with  the 
monarchs  of  Spain,  for  he  was  only  a humble  sailor,  picking  up 
a living  as  he  went  from  place  to  place  drawing  maps  and 
charts.  The  greatest  wonder  is  that  he  ever  succeeded  in  pre- 
senting his  plan.  In  the  fall  of  1485,  however,  he  secured  an 
audience  with  Ferdinand,  who  was  so  impressed  that  he  called 
a council  of  scholars  to  consider  it.  After  looking  into  the 
scheme,  these  so-called  scholars  declared  the 
views  of  Columbus  “unphilosophical  and, 
worst  of  all,  unscriptural,”  and,  further,  that 
"it  was  false  and  heretical  to  assume  that  land  could  be  found 
by  sailing  west  from  Europe”;  moreover,  they  wisely  stated 
“that  Columbus  after  he  had  descended  the  hemisphere  would 


Columbus  Gets  a 
Bearing  in  Spain 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  35 


not  be  able  to  ascend  again,  for  it  would  be  like  getting  up  a 
mountain.”  While  this  decision  discouraged  Columbus,  he 
did  not  give  up  hope.  The  fact  that  his  plan  had  been  discussed 
by  a council  of  scholars  served  to  give  it  considerable  publicity, 
and,  staying  close  to  the  court,  he  accompanied  the  Spanish 
army  to  the  siege  of  Malaga  in  1487.  The  next  year  Columbus 
dispatched  his  brother  Bartholomew  to  lay  his  plan  before  King 
Henry  VII  of  England,  but  unfortunately,  he  fell  among  pirates 
in  the  channel.  Although  Henry  VII  was  favorable  to  the 
plan,  Bartholomew  was  not  able  to  bring  this  good  news  to  his 
brother  until  Columbus  had  started  upon  his  famous  voyage. 

In  1489  Columbus  had  become  completely  discouraged  and 
determined  to  try  his  fortune  in  France.  Stopping  to  visit  his 
little  son  Diego,  at  a monastery  near  Palos,  the  prior,  who  had 
formerly  been  queen’s  chaplain,  learning  of  his  intention  to 
quit  Spain  for  France,  wrote  to  the  queen  urging  her  to  accept 
the  scheme  of  the  navigator.  So  impressed  was  Isabella  by  the 
letter  of  her  former  chaplain  that  she  at  once  summoned  Co- 
lumbus to  the  court,  and  he  was  at  last  taken  under  the  royal 
protection.  Columbus  arrived  in  Granada  just  in  time  to  see 
the  last  of  the  Moorish  banners  tom  from  the  Alhambra  and  the 
united  flag  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  unfurled,  and  it  was 
Queen  Isabella  amid  such  strange  surroundings  as  these  that 

Promises  to  Send  he  first  presented  himself  to  the  good  queen. 

Columbus  on  His  He  asked  for  ships  and  sailors,  that  he  be 

made  admiral  of  all  new  discoveries,  and  that 
he  be  given  “a  tenth  of  all  spices,  precious  stones,  precious 
metals  found  or  bought  or  sold  within  the  bounds  of  his  dis- 
coveries.” These  demands  the  queen  thought  absurd,  as  they 
undoubtedly  were,  and  once  more  Columbus  was  sent  away. 
By  this  time,  however,  influential  members  of  the  court  had  been 
won  over  to  his  side,  and  on  their  intervention  he  was  again 
summoned  before  the  queen.  At  last  she  promised  to  grant 
him  all  things  necessary  for  his  voyage,  even  if  it  were  necessary 
for  her  to  give  her  jewels  in  pledge. 

The  agreement  between  the  monarchs  and  Columbus  was 
signed  April  17,  1492,  and  immediately  he  began  preparation 
at  the  port  of  Palos  for  his  famous  voyage.  The  three  vessels 


36 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


which  Palos  annually  furnished  to  the  crown  were  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  admiral,  and  funds  were  advanced  from  the 
ecclesiastical  revenues  of  the  crown  of  Aragon.  The  Pinzon 
brothers,  rich  and  skillful  mariners  of  Palos,  joined  Columbus 
in  his  undertaking.  Three  vessels,  the  Santa  Maria,  the  Pinta, 
and  the  Nina,  were  made  ready,  and  ninety  sailors  were  secured 
by  proclamation  offering  immunity  from  civil  and  criminal 
process.  The  voyage  started  at  sunrise,  August  3,  1492,  but 
before  starting  the  crews  gathered  at  the  church  and  partook 
of  the  sacrament.  Finally  all  was  ready,  and  the  course  was 
Preparations  for  the  directed  toward  the  Canary  Islands,  which 
voyage,  and  the  were  reached  in  seven  days.  Here  they  were 

Voyage  detained  three  weeks  by  a broken  rudder  on 

the  Pinta.  Again  they  set  sail,  and  farther  and  farther  they 
penetrated  into  the  unknown  sea,  while  the  crews  became  more 
and  more  alarmed  and  mutiny  was  never  very  far  away.  Now 
and  again  by  the  end  of  September  they  began  to  see  flocks  of 
land  birds,  then  some  sea  weeds  floating,  and  finally  a branch 
of  a tree  with  leaves  and  berries  fresh  upon  it.  Then  the 
morning  of  the  twelfth  of  October  dawned,  and  behold  before 
them  lay  a shore,  and  as  they  drew  nearer  crowds  of  friendly 
natives  were  seen.  Soon  a landing  was  accomplished,  and  the 
pious  Columbus  took  possession  of  the  new-found  land  in  the 
name  of  the  Catholic  monarchs  of  Spain.  Our  knowledge  of 
this  first  voyage  is  based  upon  the  extracts  of  the  journal  of 
Columbus,  which  were  copied  by  the  first  historian  of  the 
Indies,  Las  Casas,  but  the  journal  itself  is  lost.  On  his  return 
Columbus  wrote  two  letters  to  friends  describing  the  voyage, 
and  these  letters  furnish  another  important  source. 

The  island  which  Columbus  first  sighted  was  named  San 
Salvador,  Holy  Saviour,  and  was  in  the  Bahama  group,  though 
its  identity  has  been  lost.  The  admiral  was  much  disappointed 
in  not  finding  gold  among  the  natives,  for  when  he  exhibited 
samples  of  gold  and  pearls  the  simple  natives  only  shook  their 
heads.  He  left  San  Salvador  on  October  14,  and  sailed  south- 
ward, passing  several  small  islands,  and  finally  reached  the 
north  shore  of  Cuba.  As  they  coasted  along  the  shore  of 
Cuba,  Columbus  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  had  found 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  37 


Columbus  Founds  La 
Navidad 


the  mainland  of  Asia.  For  two  days  he  skirted  the  island  in  a 
southeasterly  direction,  and  came  finally  to 
the  island  of  Haiti,  which  Columbus  thought 
was  Japan.  On  Christmas  day  the  largest 
vessel,  the  Santa  Maria,  was  wrecked,  though  the  crew  was 
safely  transferred  to  the  Nina.  The  Pinta  had  previously 
deserted  the  admiral,  and  Columbus  feared  that  her  captain, 
one  of  the  Pinzons,  had  returned  to  Spain  to  reap  the  benefit 
of  the  discovery.  Before  starting  on  the  return  voyage  Colum- 
bus determined  to  leave  some  of  the  men  on  the  island,  for  the 
Nina  was  now  much  overcrowded.  Accordingly,  houses  and 
a fortress  were  erected,  the  natives  aiding  in  the  work,  and 
thirty-nine  men  were  selected  to  form  this  temporary  colony, 
which  received  the  name  of  La  Navidad,  in  honor  of  the  escape 
from  the  wreck,  on  Christmas  day. 

On  January  4,  1493,  the  return  voyage  was  begun,  and  two 
days  later  Columbus  overtook  the  Pinta.  After  a stormy 
passage,  during  which  the  vessels  were  twice  in  danger  of 
shipwreck,  the  Azores  were  at  last  sighted  on  February  15. 
Here  they  received  a very  ungracious  reception  from  the 
Portuguese  governor.  Leaving  the  Azores,  they  ran  into 
another  storm,  in  which  the  vessels  were  again  separated,  and 
finally  the  Nina  was  compelled  to  take  refuge 
in  the  river  Tagus.  Here  Columbus  came 
once  more  in  contact  with  the  Portuguese, 
but  this  time  he  was  well  received,  invited  to  the  court,  and 
made  much  of.  A few  days  later  the  little  Nina  sailed  into  the 
harbor  of  Palos;  the  people  at  once  recognized  the  vessel,  and 
immediately  all  trade  was  stopped,  bells  were  rung,  and  when 
night  came  the  streets  were  brilliantly  illuminated  in  honor  of 
the  great  admiral. 

As  soon  as  the  monarchs  learned  of  the  return  of  Columbus 
they  summoned  him  to  the  court  at  Barcelona,  where  he  was 
given  great  honor,  being  directed  to  seat  himself  in  their 
presence,  an  honor  usually  bestowed  only  upon  royalty. 
When  the  monarchs  had  received  Columbus  they  immediately 
sent  messengers  to  the  pope,  Alexander  VI,  who  was  himself  a 
Spaniard,  a native  of  Valencia  in  Aragon,  and  requested  that 


The  Return  of 
Columbus 


38 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Papal  Bull  of 
Demarcation 


he  grant  them  the  Indies,  just  discovered.  Accordingly,  on 
May  3, 1493,  the  pope  issued  a bull  conferring  upon  the  Spanish 
sovereigns  all  lands  discovered  and  hereafter  to  be  discovered 
in  the  western  ocean.  In  this  famous  document  the  pope 
states  that  he  has  done  this  “Out  of  our  pure  liberality,  certain 
knowledge,  and  plenitude  of  apostolic 
power,”  and  “by  virtue  of  the  authority  of 
omnipotent  God  granted  to  us  in  Saint  Peter 
and  of  the  Vicarship  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  we  administer  upon 
the  earth.”  On  the  following  day  another  bull  was  issued 
fixing  a line  of  demarcation  dividing  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese possessions.  This  line  was  drawn  one  hundred  leagues 
west  of  the  Azores  and  Cape  Verde  Islands.  The  first  demarca- 
tion line,  however,  did  not  satisfy  Portugal,  and  in  the  year 
1494  a treaty  was  signed  between  Spain  and  Portugal  moving 
the  line  to  three  hundred  and  seven  leagues  west  of  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands.  The  changing  of  the  original  line  had  far-reaching 
influence,  for  the  new  line  touched  the  coast  of  South  America, 
and  Portugal  was  thus  given  a claim  on  Brazil. 

Immediately  there  was  organized  a special  department  of 
Indian  Affairs,  with  headquarters  at  Seville,  and  the  Archbishop 
of  Seville  was  placed  in  charge.  A special  Indian  customhouse 
was  built  at  Cadiz;  the  famous  system  of  colonial  control  thus 
begun  was  to  continue  for  more  than  three  hundred  years. 

Provision  for  missionary  work  among  the 
Indians  was  likewise  inaugurated,  Columbus 
having  brought  back  from  the  Indies  six 
Indians,  who  were  soon  baptized,  the  king  and  queen  standing 
as  godfather  and  godmother  for  them.  These  Indians  were  to 
be  taught  the  Spanish  tongue  and  were  to  serve  as  interpreters 
for  the  priests.  A certain  Bernardo  Boyle  was  made  the 
pope’s  vicar,  for  the  carrying  on  of  this  work. 

The  second  voyage  of  Columbus  was  primarily  a colonizing 
expedition.  In  the  summer  of  1493  fourteen  ships  for  passengers 
and  three  for  stores  were  prepared.  When  the  expedition  sailed 
on  September  23,  there  were  some  fifteen  hundred  persons  on 
board,  among  them  many  hidalgos,  and  such  stores  as  cattle, 
vines,  horses  and  other  things  considered  necessary  to  the 


Department  of  Indian 
Affairs  Established 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  39 


founding  of  a colony.  This  voyage  went  also  by  way  of  the 
Canaries,  and  thence  by  a straight  course  to  the  West  Indies, 
The  Second  Voyage  finally  sighting  the  island  of  Dominica  in  the 
of  Columbus,  and  the  Lesser  Antilles,  on  November  3.  Sailing 
First  Spanish  Colony  through  the  smaller  islands  of  this  group, 

Columbus  found  and  named  several,  among  them  being  Guade- 
loupe and  Antigua,  and  arrived  on  the  north  shore  of  Hispaniola 
on  November  27.  On  reaching  the  site  of  La  Navidad,  no 
trace  of  the  thirty-nine  men  who  had  made  up  the  colony 
could  be  found,  though  they  found  chests  broken  open,  and 
finally  nine  corpses  buried  near  the  fortress.  Later  Columbus 
learned  that  the  Spaniards  had  quarreled  among  themselves 
and  had  mistreated  the  Indians.  Eventually  a fierce  Indian 
chief  had  attacked  them  and  wiped  them  out  of  existence,  a 
fate,  no  doubt,  which  they  richly  deserved. 

Columbus  now  proceeded  to  choose  another  site  for  a colony, 
and  fixed  upon  a place  some  thirty  miles  east  of  La  Navidad; 
there  he  built  a town,  naming  it  Isabella,  in  honor  of  his  royal 
patroness,  the  good  Spanish  queen.  When  this  had  been 
completed,  Columbus  left  his  brother  Diego  in  charge  of  the 
colony  while  he  went  on  an  exploring  voyage  among  the  islands 
of  the  Greater  Antilles.  In  this  voyage  he  sailed  westward 
along  the  northern  shore  of  Hispaniola  until  the  east  end  of  the 
island  of  Cuba  was  reached.  Then,  striking  the  south  shore  of 
Cuba,  he  circumnavigated  the  Isle  of  Pines,  and  then  returned 
by  way  of  the  island  of  Jamaica  and  the  south  shore  of  His- 
paniola. On  his  return  Columbus  set  about  to  rule  the  colony. 
During  his  absence  things  had  gone  badly.  The  proud  hidalgos 

were  unwilling  to  be  governed  by  these  for- 

Founding  of  Isabella  . o o j 

eigners  from  Genoa.  Soon  the  other  brother, 
Bartholomew,  who  some  five  years  previously  had  gone  on  the 
errand  to  England,  arrived  in  Isabella  with  several  ships  loaded 
with  supplies  for  the  colony.  He  was  at  once  made  adelantado, 
or  military  governor.  Fonseca,  the  head  of  the  new  department 
of  Indian  affairs  in  Spain,  had  become  hostile  to  Columbus  and 
welcomed  every  tale  which  came  to  his  ears  that  was  to  the 
admiral’s  discredit.  Indian  wars  broke  out,  greatly  adding  to 
the  difficulties.  The  crisis  came  when  the  two  priests  headed 


40 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


a company  of  discontented  colonists,  seized  the  ships  in  which 
Bartholomew  had  come,  and  departed  for  Spain.  Finally 
feeling  that  it  was  necessary  to  return  to  Spain,  to  present  his 
own  side  of  the  colonial  situation  to  the  sovereigns,  Columbus 
set  sail  from  Hispaniola  in  the  spring  of  1496,  arriving  in  Cadiz 
in  June. 

When  the  admiral  reached  Spain  he  was  kindly  received  by 
the  Catholic  monarchs  and  no  mention  was  made  of  the  com- 
plaints that  had  been  made  against  him.  In  May,  1498,  a 
third  expedition  set  sail  under  the  command  of  Columbus.  He 
sailed  from  the  little  port  of  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda  on  May 
30,  with  six  vessels.  Three  of  the  ships  went  immediately  to 
the  colony,  while  Columbus  with  the  other  three  sailed  south- 
ward to  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  then  straight  westward  until 
the  island  of  Trinidad,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  was 
sighted.  This  island  the  pious  Columbus  named  Trinidad 
because  of  the  three  mountain  peaks  of  the  island.  In  the 
voyage  the  admiral  was  searching  for  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
for  he  still  thought  he  had  found  Asia  in  Cuba,  and  he  desired 
to  find  the  way  through  to  the  Spice  Islands. 
Columbus  Voyage  of  He  coasted  along  the  north  shore  of  South 
America,  sailed  into  the  mouth  of  the  great 
river  Orinoco,  found  some  fine  pearls,  and  then,  Columbus 
being  overtaken  by  a strange  stupor,  the  expedition  sailed 
straight  for  the  colony.  Here  everything  was  in  a most  de- 
plorable condition.  An  insurrection  among  the  colonists  had 
been  started,  which  was  followed  by  an  Indian  uprising,  and 
Bartholomew,  the  governor,  instead  of  punishing  the  rebels, 
had  made  terms  with  them.  At  this  juncture  the  admiral 
made  his  greatest  mistake  in  sending  to  Spain  a cargo  of  six 
hundred  Indian  slaves.  This  greatly  angered  the  queen,  who 
looked  upon  the  Indians  as  the  special  wards  of  the  crown. 
When  the  slaves  reached  Spain  they  were  at  once  sent  back  to 
the  Indies. 

This  slave  venture  of  Columbus  probably  decided  the  sov- 
ereigns to  investigate  affairs  in  the  colony.  Accordingly,  a 
special  agent,  in  the  person  of  a certain  Bobadilla,  was  sent 
out  from  Spain  with  instructions  to  punish  offenders  and 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  41 


receive  from  Columbus  and  his  brothers  all  fortresses  and  other 
property  belonging  to  the  government.  This  was  not  to  be 
done,  however,  unless  in  case  of  extreme  necessity.  But  no 
sooner  had  Bobadilla  arrived  in  the  colony  than  he  caused  the 
arrest  of  Columbus  and  his  brothers  without  making  the  slightest 
investigation.  The  accusations  against  Columbus  were  that 
he  had  made  sick  men  work;  had  starved  them;  had  whipped 
these  starving  men  for  petty  stealing;  and,  finally,  had  treated 

Arrest  of  Columbus  the  Indians  cruelly,  expressly  against  the 
and  His  Return  to  queen’s  command.  Heavy  chains  were 
spam  m chams  placed  upon  Columbus — treatment  which  cut 
his  sensitive  nature  to  the  quick.  With  this  cruel  and  dis- 
graceful treatment  the  administration  of  Columbus  in  this  first 
Spanish  colony  came  to  a sad  end.  Everything  considered, 
the  sovereigns  were  not  far  wrong  in  removing  Columbus, 
though,  as  Fiske  suggests,  it  might  have  been  done  in  a less 
brutal  way.  Columbus  was  a dreamer  rather  than  an  adminis- 
trator, and  his  reputation  would  perhaps  have  been  even  greater 
if  he  had  never  attempted  the  government  of  this  first  colony. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  great  explorer  in  Spain,  orders  were  at 
once  issued  that  he  should  be  released  from  his  chains,  and  he 
was  promised  reimbursement  for  all  his  losses,  a promise, 
however,  which  was  never  fulfilled.  The  sovereigns  also  were 
magnanimous  enough  not  to  take  any  notice  of  the  accusations 
which  were  brought  against  him.  Since  the  last  voyage  of 
Columbus,  Da  Gama  had  made  his  great  voyage  around  Africa, 
and  had  returned  with  his  rich  cargo.  This  inspired  the  Spanish 
sovereigns  to  send  Columbus  upon  his  fourth  and  last  voyage, 
in  an  attempt  to  find  a way  to  the  rich  Spice  Islands.  This 
last  expedition  consisted  of  four  small  vessels,  and  set  sail  from 
Cadiz  on  May  11,  1502.  The  admiral  had  orders  not  to  land 
at  the  colony  in  Hispaniola,  but  a disabled  ship  led  him  to  dis- 
obey the  command  and  he  attempted  a landing  at  Isabella. 
He  was  ordered  to  leave  at  once,  which  he  accordingly  did  in 
the  teeth  of  a storm,  though  his  ships  found 

ciiumb^Sfsof  safety  near  by-  In  this  voyage  Columbus 
explored  the  west  coast  of  Central  America, 
naming  Cape  Gracias  d Dios,  was  told  by  the  natives  of  a 


42 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


“narrow  place,”  which  he  interpreted  as  meaning  a strait,  and 
followed  the  coast  to  about  the  eastern  end  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  Here  he  decided  to  found  a colony,  but  after  remaining 
three  months  they  were  driven  to  sea  by  famine  and  misery. 
One  hardship  followed  another  in  rapid  succession.  The  ships 
were  wrecked  upon  the  shore  of  the  island  of  Jamaica,  and  here 
Columbus  and  his  men  were  compelled  to  remain  for  a year, 
enduring  in  the  meantime  terrible  suffering  from  hunger  and 
disease.  Finally,  after  long  delay,  they  were  rescued  by  an 
expedition  sent  out  by  Ovando,  the  governor  of  Hispaniola, 
and  Columbus  reached  Spain  in  November,  1504.  The  days 
of  his  glory  were  passed,  and  honor  no  longer  awaited  his  return 
to  Spain,  for  the  good  queen  was  upon  her  deathbed,  and  it  was 
not  long  until  the  disappointed  and  heart-broken  admiral 
followed  her  to  the  grave.  Columbus  died  without  knowing 
that  he  had  discovered  a new  world. 

As  the  news  of  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  and  Da  Gama 
and  the  other  early  navigators  became  more  widely  known, 
other  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  began  to  plan  voyages  of  dis- 
covery. Between  1500  and  1520  no  less  than  twenty  expedi- 
tions sailed  out  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  ports,  or  from  the 
ports  of  the  islands.  In  1500  an  expedition  under  the  command 
of  Ojeda  and  La  Cosa  with  Amerigo  Vespucci,  sailed  to  the 
north  coasts  of  South  America,  following  more  or  less  the  same 
course  pursued  by  Columbus  in  his  third  voyage.  In  the  same 
year  Vincente  Pinzon  also  made  a voyage  to  the  northeast  coast 
of  Brazil.  Lepe,  another  Spanish  navigator,  went  as  far  as 
ten  degrees  south  latitude  along  the  Brazilian  coasts.  Cabral, 
a Portuguese,  in  attempting  to  sail  around  Africa,  was  driven 
by  a storm  upon  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  sailing  along  the  coast 
to  the  sixteenth  degree  south  latitude,  took  possession  of  the 
country  in  the  name  of  his  king.  Two  Spanish  navigators, 
Bastidas  and  La  Cosa,  from  October,  1500, 
Be^een  iso^Md^o  to  September,  1502,  sailed  along  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America  and  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  In  the  same  year  a Portuguese,  Nuno  Manuel, 
explored  the  Brazilian  coast  to  the  thirty-fourth  degree  south 
latitude,  and  discovered  the  island  of  Georgia.  Two  other 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  43 


Portuguese  ships  sailed  to  the  Brazilian  coast  between  1503 
and  1504,  while  two  Spanish  voyages  were  made  between  1507 
and  1509,  to  the  same  region.  In  1508  Ocampo  circumnavi- 
gated Cuba,  thus  disproving  the  belief  held  by  Columbus  that 
it  was  a part  of  Asia.  In  1513  Ponce  de  Leon  explored  the 
coasts  of  Florida,  while  in  the  same  year  Balboa  crossed  the 
isthmus  and  discovered  the  Pacific.  After  the  discovery  of 
the  Pacific,  navigators  realized  that  there  was  another  western 
ocean  to  cross  before  the  Spice  Islands  could  be  reached,  and 
it  gradually  dawned  upon  them  that  it  was  a new  world  which 
had  been  found. 

Between  1517  and  1519  several  exploring  voyages  were  sent 
out  along  the  Mexican  coast,  from  the  islands  of  Hispaniola 
and  Cuba.  The  Yucatan  penninsula  was  circumnavigated 
and  the  general  nature  of  the  coast  of  Central  America  was 
learned.  In  1519  the  great  Portuguese  navigator,  Magellan, 
sailing  under  the  flag  of  Spain,  started  on  his  voyage  to  circum- 
navigate the  earth.  In  the  fall  of  1820  he  sailed  through  the 
M.eo,,.„  Straits  which  bear  his  name.  When  he 

circumnavigates  the  reached  the  Philippines,  of  which  he  took 

possession  in  the  name  of  Spain,  he  was 
killed  in  a fight  with  the  natives.  One  of  his  ships,  however, 
finally  sailed  into  the  harbor  from  which  it  had  started  nearly 
three  years  previously.  This  voyage  of  Magellan  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  earth  was  much  larger  than  had  been  supposed, 
and  from  henceforth  the  Spanish  navigators  more  and  more 
turned  their  attention  to  America,  giving  up  the  search  for  a 
way  through  to  the  East  Indies. 

So  far  the  Spanish  voyages  had  not  been  profitable  from  the 
standpoint  of  financial  return.  In  striking  contrast  were  the 
voyages  of  the  Portuguese,  which  were  extremely  profitable 
from  the  first.  From  the  return  of  Da  Gama  from  his  great 
voyage  with  a rich  cargo  of  spices  there  began  for  Portugal  a 
Portuguese  and  Period  of  Sreat  prosperity,  the  greatest  in 

Spanish  Voyages  Portuguese  history.  Immediately  large  Por- 
Contrasted  tuguese  fleets  began  to  go  to  the  East  Indies, 

returning  with  rich  cargoes,  and  Lisbon  soon  became  one  of  the 
busiest  ports  in  the  world.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  gold 


44 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


How  America  Was 
Named 


and  silver  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru  came  into  Spanish  pos- 
session that  Spain  received  any  great  financial  returns  from  her 
discoveries. 

Among  the  navigators  who  went  on  voyages  of  discovery 
during  these  years  was  an  Italian  merchant,  Amerigo  Vespucci. 
He  had  been  sent  out  to  Seville  in  1492  by  the  great  Florentine 
mercantile  house  of  the  De  Medici  as  their  representative.  He 
soon  became  greatly  interested  in  the  discoveries  that  were  being 
made  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  navigators.  In  1499  this 
Italian  agent  accompanied  an  expedition  to  the  north  coast  of 
South  America.  It  is  also  known  that  he  went  on  three  other 
voyages,  but  in  every  case  he  was  not  the  chief  personage,  and 
was  never  more  than  of  secondary  importance.  The  way  in 
which  the  name  of  this  merchant,  Amerigo  Vespucci,  became 
prominent  was  as  follows:  When  he  returned  from  these  voyages 
he  wrote  accounts  of  them  in  Latin,  and  in 
these  writings  he  made  himself  seem  the  chief 
personage.  These  accounts  were  not  only 
read  in  Spain  but  throughout  Europe.  In  this  way  his  name 
came  to  be  more  intimately  connected  with  the  new  discoveries 
than  even  that  of  Columbus.  Vespucci  also  had  called  the 
land  discovered  “Novus  Mundus”  (“New  World”),  while  Colum- 
bus had  simply  spoken  of  it  as  the  Indies.  Finally,  in  1507, 
three  years  after  the  death  of  Columbus,  Waldseemuller,  a profes- 
sor in  the  college  of  St.  Die,  published  a geography,  and  on  the 
map  of  the  new  land  he  placed  the  name  “America.”  Other 
map-makers  followed  his  example,  and  thus  the  name  became 
permanently  attached  to  the  new  continents.  This  was  an 
honor  which  Amerigo  Vespucci  certainly  did  not  deserve,  but, 
strange  to  say,  there  were  few  protests.  Even  Ferdinand 
Columbus  when  he  wrote  the  life  of  his  father  in  1539  seemed 
to  be  unaware  that  the  real  discoverer  had  been  eclipsed. 

The  net  result  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  voyaging  in  the 
western  ocean  between  the  years  1492  and  1520  was  as  follows: 
All  the  larger  islands  of  the  West  Indies  had  been  discovered, 
their  coast  lines  mapped,  and  colonies  had  been  planted  upon 
them;  the  eastern  coast  line  of  South  America  down  as  far 
as  the  Rio  de  La  Plata  was  fairly  well  known  both  to  the 


PORTUGUESE  AND  SPANISH  EXPLORATION  45 


Spanish  and  Portuguese;  the  north  coast  of  South  America 
and  the  coasts  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 

Results  of  the  First  . , , , . ° . , , , 

Decade  of  Spanish  ico  had  been  explored,  and  a colony  founded 
and  Portuguese  on  the  Isthmus.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese 

Vflyflging  1 ^ 

navigators  had  proved  themselves  to  be  both 
hardy  and  resourceful,  and  we  are  now  to  see  what  kind  of  colo- 
nizers they  were,  as  we  trace  the  planting  of  their  colonies  upon 
these  new  found  coasts. 


READING  REFERENCES 

Perhaps  the  best  extended  account  of  the  whole  story  of  Spanish  voy- 
aging will  be  found  in  Spanish  Conquest  of  America,  by  Sir  Arthur  Helps, 
Vol.  I.  A clear  account  of  the  Portuguese  discoveries  is  European  Back- 
ground of  American  History,  by  E.  P.  Cheyney,  Chapter  IV. 

Spain  in  America  (American  Nation  Series,  Vol.  II,  Harpers,  1904), 
by  E.  G.  Bourne,  is  the  best  single-volume  account  of  the  Spanish  activi- 
ties. A spirited  account  of  both  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  discoveries 
will  be  found  in  Discovery  of  America,  by  John  Fiske  (Houghton,  Mifflin 
& Co.,  1895),  Chapters  IV,  V,  VI,  and  VII. 

The  most  recent  work  on  Columbus  is  Christopher  Columbus,  by  John 
Boyd  Thacher  (G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  1903),  3 vols. 

The  Rise  of  the  Spanish  Empire,  by  R.  B.  Merriman,  Vol.  II,  Chapter 
XVII,  is  a summary  of  the  Spanish  activities  in  the  Indies  in  the  period 
of  discovery. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  COLONIZATION  OF  THE  ISLANDS  AND  THE 

ISTHMUS 


The  colonization  of  Latin  America  may  be  considered  under 
four  divisions:  (1)  The  Colonization  of  the  Islands  and  the 
Isthmus;  (2)  The  Conquests  of  Mexico,  Peru, 
^ofcl6^  and  Chile;  (3)  The  Founding  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Colonies  of  Spain:  Venezuela,  Colombia, 
and  La  Plata;  and  (4)  The  Portuguese  Colonization  of  Brazil. 
We  plan  to  take  up  these  phases  in  order,  devoting  a chapter 
to  each.  The  first  phase  of  Latin  colonization  in  the  New  World 
was  the  founding  of  colonies  upon  the  larger  islands  of  the  West 
Indies.  From  the  West  Indies  attempts  to  found  colonies  upon 
the  mainland  of  Central  and  South  America  followed.  After 
this  came  the  conquests  of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chile;  the  Mexi- 
can conquest  proceeded  from  Cuba;  the  Peruvian  conquest  from 
the  colony  on  the  mainland,  while  the  conquerors  of  Chile  set 
out  from  Peru.  The  third  phase  of  colonization  was  the  plant- 
ing of  colonies  in  the  nonmineral-producing  sections  of  South 
America.  Spain  cared  little  about  these  nonmineral-producing 
colonies  and  she  neglected  them  throughout  the  colonial  period. 
The  fourth  phase  of  Latin-American  colonization  was  the  plant- 
ing of  Portuguese  settlements  in  Brazil,  which  must  be  discussed 
in  a separate  chapter. 


Colonization  of  the  Islands 
Spanish  colonization  properly  begins  in  January,  1493,  with 
the  founding  of  La  Navidad,  on  the  north  shore  of  Hispaniola, 
when  Columbus  left  thirty-nine  sailors  from  the  wrecked  Santa 
Maria.  We  have  already  noticed  what  fate  befell  this  little 
colony.  The  second  voyage  of  Columbus  was  the  first  real 
colonization  expedition  to  sail  out  of  Spain.  Fifteen  hundred 
people  were  shipped  and  all  things  thought  necessary  for  the 
planting  of  a full-fledged  colony.  The  site  selected  for  this 

46 


COLONIZATION  OF  ISLANDS  AND  ISTHMUS  47 


Tbe  Founding  of 
Isabella 


Administration  of 
Columbus 


enterprise  was  on  the  north  shore  of  Hispaniola,  some  thirty 
miles  east  of  La  Navidad,  and  was  named 
Isabella  in  honor  of  the  queen.  According  to 
the  agreement  between  Columbus  and  his 
sovereigns,  he  was  to  be  the  governor  of  the  colony.  Columbus, 
however,  was  not  a successful  ruler.  His  two  brothers,  Diego 
and  Bartholomew,  came  out  to  the  colony,  and  both  received 
positions  of  influence,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  haughty 
Spanish  hidalgos,  who  looked  with  ill-disguised  dislike  upon 
the  advancement  of  these  Italian  adventurers.  The  two 
priests  Margarite  and  Boyle  led  a discontented  group  back  to 
Spain,  and  rumors  of  the  disorganized  condition  of  the  colony 
kept  finding  their  way  back  to  the  ears  of 
the  wily  head  of  the  new  Council  of  the 
Indies.  The  net  outcome  of  the  administra- 
tion of  Columbus  was  a sad  failure.  In  1500  Bobadilla  was 
sent  out  by  the  sovereigns  to  relieve  Columbus  of  his  duties, 
and  for  a year  and  a half  he  governed  the  colony. 

The  real  successor,  however,  of  Columbus  as  governor  of 
Hispaniola  was  Nicolas  de  Ovando,  who  came  out  to  the 
colony  in  September,  1501.  He  remained  in  charge  until  1506. 
Ovando  was  a distinguished  knight  of  the  order  of  Alcantara 
and  was  highly  thought  of  in  Spain.  His  administration,  how- 
ever, is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  extreme  cruelty  with  which 
he  treated  the  Indians.  The  system  known 
as  the  encomienda,  by  which  land  and  In- 
dians were  partitioned  out  among  the  Span- 
iards, got  well  started  under  this  administration.  As  we  have 
seen,  Columbus  had  desired  to  enslave  the  Indians,  but  so  long 
as  Queen  Isabella  lived  these  attempts  had  failed.  No  sooner, 
however,  was  the  good  queen  dead  than  the  enslavement  of  the 
Indians  went  on  at  an  amazing  rate.  It  was  not  long  until 
Hispaniola  and  the  surrounding  islands  were  denuded  of  their 
native  populations. 

Ovando’s  successor  was  Diego  Columbus,  the  youngest  son 
of  the  great  admiral.  He  had  married  the  niece  of  King  Fer- 
dinand, Maria  de  Toledo,  and  had  succeeded  in  having  re- 
stored to  him  the  rights  and  dignities  of  his  famous  father. 


The  Government 
Under  Ovando 


48 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


He  and  his  royal  wife  came  out  to  Hispaniola  in  1509.  There 
is  little  evidence  that  things  improved  much  under  Diego,  for 
Diego  Columbus,  we  are  told  that  among  the  first  acts  of  his 
Governor  of  administration  was  the  giving  of  new  Re- 

Hispamoia  partimientos  to  himself  and  wife  and  to  other 

royal  favorites.  It  was  during  his  administration  that  a ship 
bearing  the  first  Dominican  friars  arrived  in  the  island,  and 
with  their  coming  agitation  was  begun  which  finally  resulted 
in  the  attempt  to  protect  the  Indians  by  the  importation  of 
African  Negroes.  This  new  policy  had  far-reaching  influence, 
not  only  upon  the  West  Indian  colonies  of  Spain,  but  upon  the 
English  colonies  of  North  America. 

In  the  meantime  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  which  had  been 
sighted  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  had  been  colonized. 
In  1508  Governor  Ovando  had  sent  Ponce  de  Leon  to  explore 
the  island,  and  in  the  next  year  he  was  made  the  governor,  and 
a settlement  was  established  near  the  present  site  of  San  Juan, 
which  received  the  name  Caparra.  Ponce  de  Leon  was  re- 
moved from  the  governorship  by  Diego  Columbus,  and  Juan 
Ceron  was  appointed.  Under  this  governor  a 
series  of  settlements  were  made  in  the  north 
of  the  island,  and  the  same  system  of  ruthless 
enslavement  of  the  Indians  was  pursued  as  in  Hispaniola.  In 
1520  there  was  an  attempt  to  save  the  Indians  by  the  Domini- 
cans, but  their  influence  was  not  sufficient  to  deliver  them  from 
the  savage  and  rapacious  Spaniard.  By  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century  the  race  of  natives  had  disappeared  from  the 
island.  Negro  slavery  was  introduced  in  1530.  The  town  San 
Juan  was  founded  in  1520,  the  first  settlement  being  abandoned 
at  the  same  time  because  of  its  unhealthy  situation.  Porto 
Rico  was  never  prosperous,  due  largely  to  the  character  of  the 
settlers. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  plant  a colony  on  Cuba  during  the 
lifetime  of  Columbus.  In  1511,  however,  in  the  administration 
of  Diego  Columbus,  a movement  was  set  in  motion  to  occupy 
Cuba,  largely  for  the  purpose  of  finding  gold.  Diego  Columbus 
appointed  Don  Diego  Velasquez  commander  of  a force  to  con- 
quer the  island.  The  Indians  in  Cuba  were  similar  to  those 


The  Settlement  of 
Porto  Rico 


COLONIZATION  OF  ISLANDS  AND  ISTHMUS  49 


Colonization  of  Cuba 


on  the  island  of  Hispaniola,  and  were,  at  first,  kindly  disposed 
toward  the  Spaniards.  Velasquez  was  a man  of  considerable 
means,  being  possessed  of  large  estates  in  Hispaniola.  The 
expedition  of  Velasquez  landed  upon  the  shore  of  Cuba,  and 
immediately  the  slaughter  of  the  Indians 
began.  Their  naked  bodies  and  poor  wea- 
pons were  no  match  for  the  weapons  and  armor  of  their 
enemies;  they  were  soon  put  to  flight,  and  the  Spaniards  pro- 
ceeded to  kill  men,  women,  and  children  in  the  most  cruel  and 
heartless  way.  Those  that  were  not  slaughtered  were  tied  to- 
gether and  driven  before  the  conquerors  like  cattle  to  be  dis- 
tributed among  the  settlers.  One  of  the  chiefs,  in  the  east 
part  of  Cuba,  Hatuey  by  name,  was  captured  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  be  burned  alive.  The  priests  prepared  him  for  his 
death,  and  exhorted  him  to  be  baptized  in  order  that  he  might 
go  to  heaven.  He  asked  if  the  Spaniards  would  go  to  heaven, 
and  when  told  that  they  would  he  replied  that  he  had  no  desire 
to  go  to  such  a place. 

Among  those  who  assisted  in  the  populating  and  pacification 
of  Cuba  was  Narvdez,  whom  Velasquez  made  his  lieutenant. 
Narvdez  had  come  from  the  island  of  Jamaica,  which  had  also 
by  this  time  been  occupied  by  the  Spaniards.  With  Narvaez 
came  also  Las  Casas,  who  was  destined  to 
occupy  a great  and  honorable  place  in  the 
conquest  of  these  islands,  and  whose  protests 
against  cruelty  to  the  Indians,  and  whose  constant  work  in 
their  behalf  throughout  his  whole  life,  is  the  only  part  of  this 
story  which  deserves  commendation. 

Within  three  years  the  island  of  Cuba  was  conquered,  and 
Velasquez,  now  appointed  governor,  proceeded  to  found  various 
towns,  according  to  Spanish  fashion.  In  1514  Trinidad,  Santa 
Espiritu,  and  Puerto  Principe  were  founded;  the  next  year  San- 
tiago de  Cuba  and  Habana.  This  was  according  to  the  Spanish 
The  Founding  of  method  of  colony-building.  No  sooner  was  a 
Spanish  Towns  in  country  occupied  than  the  conquistador  pro- 
ceeded to  found  a town,  generally  giving  it  a 
pious  name.  Thus  such  names  as  Trinidad,  Santa  Espiritu, 
Vera  Cruz  occur  over  and  over  again  in  Latin  American  geog- 


Narvaez  and  Las 
Casas 


50 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


raphy.  The  Spaniard  did  not  see  any  inconsistency  in  ruth- 
lessly slaughtering  the  natives,  and  then  founding  a town  with 
a pious  name.  He  was  doing  it  all  in  the  name  of  his  holy  reli- 
gion, and  for  the  honor  of  his  blessed  Saviour. 


First  Colonies  on  the  Mainland 

By  1515  the  Spaniards  had  occupied  and  colonized  all  the 
larger  of  the  West  India  islands.  While  these  Spanish  adven- 
turers were  conquering  and  settling  the  islands,  others  were 
equally  busy  attempting  the  more  difficult  task  of  occupying 
the  mainland.  The  very  year  Diego  Columbus  came  out  to 
Hispaniola  with  his  royal  wife,  two  expeditions  set  out  from 
the  new  port  of  Santo  Domingo,  in  Hispaniola,  to  found  col- 
onies on  the  mainland.  The  leaders  of  these  expeditions  were 
Ojeda  and  Nicuesa.  Ojeda  was  a daredevil  adventurer,  a type 
_.  J with  which  Spain  was  well  supplied  at  this 

obtain  Grants  to  time.  He  was  a man  of  great  personal  cour- 
Mainland011165  °n  ^ aSe  and  daring,  but  with  little  ability  to 
command  men.  He  had,  however,  powerful 
connections  in  Spain.  Nicuesa  was  also  of  good  birth,  a courtier 
with  powerful  connections.  He  had  come  to  Hispaniola  with 
Governor  Ovando  and  had  been  successful  in  acquiring  great 
wealth.  King  Ferdinand  had  determined  to  found  colonies 
upon  the  mainland  of  South  America,  and  both  Ojeda  and 
Nicuesa  learning  of  this  desired  to  be  made  governor  of  the 
new  colony.  To  avoid  the  dilemma  of  deciding  between  the 
two  applicants,  the  king  divided  the  territory  and  appointed 
each  governor  over  a separate  province.  Ojeda  was  granted 
the  north  coast  of  South  America,  from  the  Gulf  of  Darien  to 
Cape  de  la  Vela,  while  to  Nicuesa  was  granted  the  territory 
from  Cape  Gracias  a Dios  to  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  the  river  of 
Darien  being  the  boundary  between  the  colonies. 

In  November,  1509,  Ojeda  sailed  from  Santo  Domingo  with 
four  ships  and  three  hundred  men.  He  landed  at  the  present 
site  of  Carthagena  and,  Spanish  fashion,  immediately  began  a 
war  of  extermination  against  the  Indians,  whom  he  found  par- 
ticularly warlike,  and  versed  in  the  use  of  poisoned  arrows. 
Juan  de  la  Cosa,  second  in  command,  was  killed,  and  Ojeda 


COLONIZATION  OF  ISLANDS  AND  ISTHMUS  51 


The  Founding  of  San 
Sebastian 


and  his  band  were  finally  routed.  Proceeding  westward,  he 
finally  founded  a colony  on  the  Gulf  of 
Darien,  which  received  the  name  “San  Se- 
bastian.” Here  the  Spaniards  succeeded  in 
stealing  some  gold  from  the  Indians  and  took  some  Indian 
captives.  These  were  sent  to  Hispaniola.  The  colonists  spent 
their  time  looking  for  gold,  paid  little  attention  to  their  food 
supply,  and  it  was  not  long  before  famine  began  to  stare  them 
in  the  face.  Finally,  Ojeda  determined  to  go  in  search  of  pro- 
visions, leaving  Francisco  Pizarro  in  command  of  the  colony. 
Before  leaving,  Ojeda  made  an  agreement  that  if  he  did  not 
return  within  fifty  days,  the  colonists  were  to  have  the  privilege 
of  going  where  they  pleased. 

In  a stolen  Genoese  ship  Ojeda  left  his  starving  colony,  des- 
tined never  to  return.  A few  days  afterward  he  was  wrecked 
upon  the  shore  of  Cuba,  and  for  days  he  and  his  weakened  men 
stumbled  along  the  swampy  shore.  After  almost  incredible 
hardships  they  at  last  succeeded  in  reaching  Jamaica,  and  from 
thence  made  their  way  to  Hispaniola.  In  the  meantime  the 
desperate  colonists  at  San  Sebastian  decided  to  leave  that 
coast.  They  killed  their  horses  for  food  and  embarked  in  two 
ships,  one  commanded  by  Pizarro.  The  other 
ship  was  sunk,  supposedly  by  a great  fish, 
but  the  one  commanded  by  Pizarro  put  in  at 
the  present  harbor  of  Carthagena,  where  they  met  another 
vessel,  which  proved  to  be  a relief  expedition  under  the  com- 
mand of  Ensico.  With  Ensico  was  Balboa,  who  had  come  on 
board  as  a castaway,  hiding  from  his  creditors.  In  spite  of  the 
protests  of  Pizarro  and  his  men,  Ensico  sailed  for  the  site  of  the 
abandoned  colony  of  San  Sebastian.  The  ship,  however,  was 
wrecked,  and  the  company  saved  themselves  only  after  the 
greatest  danger.  Proceeding  on  foot,  along  the  shore,  fighting 
the  Indians  as  they  went,  they  finally  came  to  the  west  side  of 
the  Gulf  of  Darien,  where  they  founded  another  colony,  which 
received  the  name  Santa  Maria  del  Darien. 

The  site  of  this  new  colony  was  in  territory  granted  to 
Nicuesa.  While  the  Ojeda  colony  was  undergoing  these  va- 
rious bitter  experiences,  Nicuesa  sailed  for  his  province  on  the 


Founding  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Darien 


52 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Nicuesa  Colony 
on  the  Isthmus 


Isthmus  of  Panama,  with  seven  hundred  colonists.  The  hard- 
ships which  had  been  encountered  by  Ojeda  and  his  men  were 
duplicated  by  Nicuesa’s  men.  In  making  their  way  up  the 
Isthmus  from  the  south,  Nicuesa  was  separated  from  his  fol- 
lowers, and  for  a time  was  left  alone  on  a desert  island.  Finally, 
rejoining  his  men,  a colony  was  established  on  the  Isthmus. 
Here  hunger  soon  drove  them  to  plunder  the  Indian  villages, 
and  on  one  occasion  they  were  even  forced  to  cannibalism.  At 
length  they  determined  to  abandon  Veragua,  the  site  of  their 
first  colony.  In  December,  1510,  they  set 
sail  eastward ; they  passed  Porto  Bello,  which 
had  been  so  named  by  Columbus,  and,  reach- 
ing another  harbor,  the  company  cried  out  in  their  weariness, 
“In  the  name  of  God  [“en  nombre  de  Dios”]  let  us  stay  here!” 
So  there  they  landed,  built  a wooden  fort,  and  to  this  day  the 
name  “Nombre  de  Dios”  is  given  to  this  place.  Of  the  seven 
hundred  colonists  with  whom  Nicuesa  started  only  one  hun- 
dred remained  alive  when  the  fort  at  Nombre  de  Dios  was 
completed,  and  not  one  in  the  company  was  found  strong 
enough  to  act  as  sentinel.  Meanwhile  the  men  at  Santa  Maria, 
remnants  of  the  Ojeda  colony,  having  come  into  the  territory 
of  Nicuesa,  decided  to  elect  him  their  governor.  Nicuesa,  how- 
ever, had  become  extremely  harsh,  due  to  his  own  suffering. 
When  he  attempted  to  take  command  of  the  colony  at  Darien 
he  was  refused  a landing,  and  with  seventeen  men  was  set 
adrift  in  a rotten  vessel  and  was  never  heard  of  again. 

Vasco  Nunez  Balboa  now  became  the  head  of  the  united 
colony.  He  at  once  began  to  explore  the  Isthmus.  He  also 
made  alliances  with  the  Indians,  even  accepting  a bride  from 
the  daughters  of  one  of  the  chiefs.  It  was  while  he  was  in 
close  association  with  the  Indians  that  he  learned,  through  a 
speech  made  by  one  of  the  Indian  caciques,  of  the  existence  of 
a great  sea  and  a golden  kingdom  to  the  south.  This  was  in 
1512,  and  the  next  spring  Balboa  was  made  captain-general  of 
Darien.  Early  in  September  of  the  next  year 
he  got  together  a company  of  two  hundred 
men  and  started  across  to  find  the  great  sea. 
On  September  25,  from  the  top  of  the  highest  range  of 


Balboa  Discovers  the 
Pacific,  1513 


COLONIZATION  OF  ISLANDS  AND  ISTHMUS  53 


mountains  on  the  Isthmus,  he  looked  down  upon  the  Pacific, 
but  it  took  four  days  of  the  most  arduous  toil  to  make  his  way 
to  the  shores  of  the  great  sea.  On  reaching  the  shore  Balboa 
walked  out  into  the  water  and  took  possession  of  the  new- 
found ocean  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Spain.  After  naming 
the  gulf  San  Miguel  he  conquered  the  Indians,  on  the  shore, 
and  then  won  them  over  by  kind  treatment.  After  recovering 
from  a severe  attack  of  fever  he  again  reached  Darien  in  Jan- 
uary, 1514,  his  expedition  having  occupied  four  months. 

While  Balboa  was  performing  the  great  service  of  discovering 
the  Pacific  things  were  going  badly  for  him  in  Spain.  Ensico 
had  returned  home  and  made  serious  complaint  of  him  at 
court.  Balboa  sent  a messenger  of  his  own  to  the  king  telling 
the  good  news  of  the  discovery  of  the  great  Pacific,  but  unfor- 
tunately the  messenger  reached  the  court  too  late  to  serve  his 
master’s  interests.  Balboa  was  removed  from  the  governor- 
ship of  Darien  and  there  were  many  applicants  for  the  position, 
for  news  had  come  to  Spain  of  the  wonders  of  Terra  Firma. 
The  coveted  place  was  finally  given  to  Pedrarias  Davila,  a 
man  of  high  rank,  though  he  was  at  the  time 
over  seventy  years  of  age.  He  arrived  in 
Darien  with  a fleet  and  some  fifteen  hundred 
colonists  in  June,  1514.  Balboa  received  him  respectfully,  but 
a quarrel  soon  arose  between  them,  resulting  in  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  former  governor.  However,  peace  finally  was 
established,  and  an  expedition  was  planned  under  the  com- 
mand of  Balboa  to  find  the  golden  kingdom  to  the  south. 
This  was  the  first  definite  plan  to  search  for  Peru.  Just  as  the 
expedition  was  about  to  sail,  Pedrarias  Davila,  having  sus- 
pected Balboa  of  treason,  sent  Pizarro  to  arrest  the  explorer. 
This  was  accomplished,  and,  after  a summary  trial,  Balboa 
was  condemned  to  die  and  was  beheaded  in  1517. 

Thus  perished  three  of  the  greatest  conquistadores  of  Spain. 
Ojeda,  after  untold  suffering,  died  in  a Franciscan  monastery 
in  Hispaniola;  Nicuesa  was  lost  at  sea,  after  having  experienced 
the  agony  of  starvation;  Balboa  was  unjustly  executed  at  the 
hands  of  a jealous  rival.  But  in  that  first  colony  on  the  main- 
land there  was  yet  left  one  who  was  to  play  a conspicuous 


Pedrarias  as  Governor 
of  Darien 


54 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


part  in  the  Spanish  occupation  of  South  America,  namely, 
Francisco  Pizarro. 

During  the  first  twenty  years  of  Spanish  occupation  of  the 
New  World  colonies  had  been  established  on  all  the  larger  of 
the  West  India  islands — Hispaniola,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and 
Jamaica — while  the  native  populations  of  these  islands  had 
either  been  subjugated  or  destroyed.  Numerous  towns  had 
been  founded,  and  a definite  form  of  colonial  government  had 
Summary  of  the  First  been  devised.  After  overcoming  the  most  ex- 
Period  of  Spanish  treme  hardships,  a colony  on  the  Isthmus 

colonization  had  at  last  been  established.  So  far,  how- 

ever, the  Spaniard  had  received  little  return  from  his  discov- 
eries or  colonial  ventures.  The  amount  of  gold  among  the 
Indians  of  the  islands  and  the  Isthmus  had  not  been  large,  so 
the  first  twenty  years  of  Spanish  colonial  history  were  a finan- 
cial loss  to  the  Spanish  monarchs,  but  it  was  not  long  until 
the  returns  from  the  Spanish  colonies  were  to  be  the  astonish- 
ment and  envy  of  the  world. 

READING  REFERENCES 

The  best  detailed  account  of  the  colonization  of  the  Islands  and  the 
Isthmus  is  Spanish  Conquest  of  America,  by  Sir  Arthur  Helps  (New  Edition, 
John  Lane,  1904).  A briefer  account  is  Discovery  of  America,  by  John 
Fiske,  Vol.  II  (Houghton,  Mifflin  & Co.,  1892). 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  AND  CHILE 

After  the  founding  of  colonies  on  the  islands  of  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  Hispaniola,  a very  profitable  trade  in  Indian  slaves 
was  begun,  for  labor  was  in  great  demand  on  the  plantations 
of  the  conquistadores.  In  1517  an  expedition,  consisting  of 
three  vessels,  one  of  them  furnished  by  Vel&squez,  started 
from  Cuba  in  search  of  slaves.  The  commander  of  this  expe- 
dition was  Hernandez  de  Cordoba.  They  sailed  westward  from 
Habana,  and  were  driven  by  a storm  upon  the  shores  of  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan.  Here  they  found  a much  higher  type  of 
civilization  than  the  Spaniards  had  yet  seen.  After  engaging 
in  several  fierce  fights  with  these  semicivilized  people,  in  one 
of  which  Cordoba  was  wounded,  they  returned  to  Cuba,  taking 

The  First  Expeditions  with  them  some  native  gold  and  some  golden 
to  Yucatan,  and  the  images  which  they  had  stolen  from  a native 
shores  of  Mexico  temple.  Soon  after  their  return  Cordoba  died 
of  his  wound,  but  the  gold  he  had  brought  incited  Veldsquez  to 
send  out  another  expedition.  This  was  placed  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  governor’s  nephew,  Juan  de  Grijalva.  There  were 
four  vessels  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  soldiers.  Sailing  from 
Santiago  de  Cuba  in  April,  1518,  they  came  first  to  the  island 
of  Cozumel,  just  off  the  coast  of  Yucatan.  They  coasted 
around  the  peninsula  and  on  up  the  Mexican  coast  to  about 
the  present  site  of  Vera  Cruz.  At  this  place  Grijalva  sent 
back  one  of  his  captains,  Alvarado,  with  a shipload  of  sick 
men,  while  he  continued  up  the  coast  to  about  where  the 
present  city  of  Tampico  stands.  Touching  at  the  shore 
from  time  to  time,  they  came  in  contact  with  the  native  popu- 
lation, and  at  one  place  were  visited  by  a taxgatherer  of  the 
great  Montezuma,  who  told  the  Spaniards  of  the  glories  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Aztecs,  and  of  the  great  quantity  of  gold  it 
contained.  Flushed  by  this  news,  thinking  that  he  had  found 
the  Great  Khan  himself,  Grijalva  returned  to  Cuba,  hoping 

55 


56 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


that  soon  he  would  be  sent  on  another  expedition  to  explore 
and  perhaps  conquer  this  rich  and  splendid  kingdom.  But 
these  hopes  were  not  to  be  realized. 

On  Grijalva’s  return  to  Cuba  he  learned  that  his  uncle,  the 
governor,  had  been  poisoned  against  him  by  Alvarado,  and 
although  another  expedition  was  speedily  organized,  he  was 
not  given  the  command,  but  to  another,  Hernando  Cortes,  fell 
the  good  fortune  of  its  leadership.  Cortes  was  the  alcalde  of 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  having  come  out  to  His- 

Hernando  Cortes  ° . 0 

paniola  in  1504,  where  he  had  been  given  land 
and  Indians.  When  Veldsquez  went  to  Cuba  at  the  head  of 
the  conquering  expedition,  Cortes  had  been  appointed  his  ad- 
viser and  executive  officer.  The  governor  of  Cuba  and  Cortes 
quarreled,  but  when  Cortes  married  the  sister-in-law  of  the 
governor  the  misunderstanding  was  allayed,  and  he  was  ap- 
pointed alcalde  of  Santiago.  Velasquez,  however,  never  ceased 
to  be  deeply  suspicious  and  jealous  of  Cortes. 

When  Cortes  received  his  commission  as  commander  of  the 
third  expedition  to  Mexico  he  at  once  threw  his  whole  soul 
into  the  undertaking.  He  spent  all  his  money,  and  even  mort- 
gaged his  estate  to  raise  funds  for  the  great  enterprise.  On 
November  18,  1518,  six  vessels  sailed  out  of  the  harbor  of 
„ ^ . Santiago,  and,  coasting  along  the  shore  of 

The  Third  Expedition  . . , 

Cuba,  other  vessels  joined  the  expedition, 
until  finally  there  were  twelve  ships.  On  these  ships  were  508 
soldiers,  109  sailors,  about  200  Cuban  Indians,  and  a few  native 
women,  several  Negro  slaves,  and  sixteen  horses,  which  were 
destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  conquest.  Among 
the  soldiers  were  32  crossbowmen  and  thirteen  men  carrying 
firelocks,  while  the  remainder  were  armed  only  with  swords 
and  spears.  The  artillery  consisted  of  ten  bronze  cannon  and 
four  falconets. 

Landing  first  on  the  little  island  of  Cozumel,  they  were  met 
by  Aguilar,  a Spaniard  who  had  lived  eight  years  among  the 
Indians,  and  who  proved  of  great  value  to  the  expedition, 
through  his  ability  to  speak  the  native  tongues.  Early  in 
March,  1519,  the  fleet  set  sail  from  Cozumel,  and  made  its 
way  up  the  Mexican  coast,  arriving  at  San  Juan  de  Ulloa  early 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  57 


in  April.  Here  a landing  was  made  and  an  encampment 
formed,  and  Cortes  proceeded  to  send  messengers  with  pres- 
ents to  Montezuma,  the  ruler  of  the  Aztec  empire.  On  Easter 
day  the  Aztec  chief  of  the  territory  in  which  the  Spaniards 
were  encamped  came  to  see  Cortes,  bringing  with  him  as 
The  Spaniards  Come  Presents  a great  load  of  cotton  cloth,  fine 
in  Contact  with  featherwork  mantles,  and  baskets  filled  with 

Montezuma  gold  ornaments.  When  Montezuma  received 

the  reports  regarding  the  strangers,  he  decided  to  send  an 
embassy  to  them  with  rich  presents,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
forbid  their  approach  to  the  capital.  This  embassy  consisted 
of  two  hundred  nobles  and  a hundred  slaves,  and  as  presents 
to  the  Spaniards  they  brought  shields  and  helmets  embossed 
with  pure  gold,  gold  ornaments,  richly  ornamented  garments, 
strung  with  gold  threads  and  pearls,  imitations  of  birds  and 
animals  in  gold  and  silver,  cotton  robes,  fine  as  silk;  and  among 
the  other  articles  was  a Spanish  helmet  filled  with  grains  of 
gold  to  the  brim.  The  greatest  gift,  however,  was  two  large 
circular  plates,  one  of  gold  and  the  other  of  silver,  as  large  as 
wagon  wheels,  covered  with  richly  carved  plants  and  birds. 
These  great  plates  were  valued  at  20,000  pesos  de  oro  (gold), 
or  about  $233,400.  Naturally  enough,  these  rich  presents 
aroused  the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards  as  never  before. 

While  these  interesting  events  were  taking  place  trouble  was 
brewing  for  Cortes.  The  friends  of  the  governor  of  Cuba 
began  to  accuse  him  of  disloyalty,  and  they  soon  announced 
their  intention  of  returning  to  Cuba.  Cortes  immediately  dis- 
armed all  suspicion  by  offering  to  return  himself,  which,  of 
course,  greatly  displeased  those  who  desired  to  stay  in  the 
country  and  reap  a rich  harvest.  These  protests  were  so  loud 
that  Cortes  finally  agreed  to  postpone  his  departure  and  pro- 
posed, instead,  the  founding  of  a colony  in  the  name  of  the 
Spanish  sovereign.  This  scheme  was  adopted, 
km  de  veraVcmz  Cortes  appointed  officers  for  the  new  town, 
and  shortly  afterward  these  officers  elected 
the  wily  Cortes  captain-general  and  chief  justice  of  the  new 
colony.  Thus  Cortes  freed  himself  from  any  technical  control 
of  Veldsquez,  while  he  obtained  supreme  civil  and  military 


58 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


control.  After  this  had  been  accomplished  the  friends  of 
Veldsquez  broke  out  in  indignant  protest,  but,  using  his  new 
authority,  Cortes  threw  them  into  irons  and  they  were  sent  to 
the  ships.  This  threatened  mutiny,  however,  did  not  last  long, 
for  such  was  the  power  of  Cortes  over  men  that  he  was  soon 
able  to  win  them  all  over  to  his  side  once  more. 

Not  long  after  this  another  plot  was  revealed,  which  was  to 
seize  a vessel  and  sail  for  Cuba,  this  movement  being  headed 
by  the  priest  Juan  Diaz.  The  plot  was  discovered  only  the 
night  before  the  conspirators  were  to  sail.  This  led  Cortes  to 
take  a step  which  for  boldness  has  few  equals  in  the  annals  of 
adventure.  He  determined  to  cut  off  all  retreat  from  Mexico 
by  destroying  the  fleet.  Cortes  gave  as  an  excuse  to  his  men 
that  the  ships  were  unseaworthy.  After  removing  the  anchors, 
sails,  and  cables,  the  ships  were  burned. 

Before  we  follow  Cortes  and  his  little  band  of  adventurers 
from  the  coast  to  the  capital  of  the  Aztec  empire  we  should 
know  something  of  the  condition  of  this  remarkable  civiliza- 
tion, which  the  Spaniards  were  soon  so  ruthlessly  to  overthrow. 
So  far  as  is  known,  the  first  people  to  occupy  the  territory 
about  the  present  City  of  Mexico  were  the  Toltecs,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  sixth  century.  The  Toltecs  were  followed  by  a 
ruder  people,  and  they  in  turn  by  tribes  of  a higher  grade  of 
culture,  the  Aztecs,  the  Tezcucans,  and  the  Tepenacs.  These 
tribes  made  war  upon  one  another,  until  finally  an  alliance  was 
made  between  them.  They  settled  down  around  the  group  of 
salt  lakes  in  the  center  of  Mexico,  and  each  built  their  respec- 
tive capital,  namely,  Mexico,  Tezcuco,  and  Tlacopan,  in  or 
near  these  lakes.  By  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  these 
confederated  tribes  began  to  make  conquests  across  the  moun- 
c f m ■ tains  to  the  east,  and  under  the  rule  of 

at  the  Time  of  the  Montezuma  I they  spread  toward  the  shores 

coning  of  the  0f  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  At  the  time  of  the 

coming  of  the  Spaniards  the  ruler  of  the 
confederacy  was  Montezuma  II,  the  grandson  of  Montezuma  I. 
He  had  been  selected  as  emperor  in  1502,  and  because  of  arro- 
gance and  assumed  pomp  was  very  unpopular.  Taxation  of 
the  newly  conquered  territories  was  very  heavy,  and  a number 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  59 


of  them  were  ready  to  rebel  at  the  slightest  provocation.  This 
was  a great  factor  in  the  success  of  the  conquest  by  the  Span- 
iards. The  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  Aztecs  were  the 
Tlascalans,  a tribe  lying  about  half  way  between  Mexico  and 
the  coast.  These  people  had  maintained  their  independence 
for  several  centuries,  and  their  military  power  was  but  very 
little  below  that  of  the  Aztecs. 

The  form  of  government  of  the  Aztec  empire  was  an  elective 
monarchy,  the  electors  being  four  noblemen,  chosen  from 
among  the  nobles  to  perform  this  service.  The  sovereigns 
were  always  chosen  from  among  the  brothers  or  the  nephews 
of  the  deceased  monarch.  The  monarch  lived  in  Oriental 
splendor.  He  had  councils  to  aid  him  in  the  government,  and 
his  palace  was  provided  with  various  halls  in  which  these 
bodies  sat.  The  legislative  power  was  vested  solely  in  the 
monarch.  There  was  also  a highly  developed  judicial  system, 
there  being  a chief  judge  for  each  principal  city  and  its  de- 
pendencies. The  laws  of  the  Aztecs  were  registered  in  the 
picture-writing.  The  chief  crimes  against  society  were  pun- 
ishable by  death.  An  adulterer,  as  among  the  Jews,  was 
stoned  to  death,  and  the  institution  of  marriage  was  held  in 
great  reverence.  Revenue  was  raised  by  taxation,  which  was 
levied  upon  agricultural  and  manufactured  articles,  and  was 
paid  in  kind,  there  being  no  medium  of  exchange.  The  taxes 
Government,  Laws,  were  gathered  by  regularly  constituted  tax- 
and  Religion  of  the  gatherers,  who  wore  official  badges.  The  re- 
ligion of  this  interesting  people  was  a 
“mixture  of  enlightened  belief  and  dark  superstition.”  They 
believed  in  a supreme  Creator,  whom  they  addressed  as  “the 
God  by  whom  we  live,”  “without  whom  man  is  nothing,”  etc. 
Besides  the  supreme  God  they  had  many  other  gods,  who  pre- 
sided over  the  seasons  and  the  various  occupations.  Among 
these  were  thirteen  special  deities,  the  most  interesting  of 
which  was  Quetzalcoatl,  the  god  of  the  air,  who  was  called  the 
Fair  God.  During  the  residence  of  this  god  upon  the  earth  the 
country  prospered.  According  to  Aztec  tradition,  this  god 
was  compelled  to  leave  the  country,  but  when  he  departed  he 
promised  to  revisit  the  land  at  some  future  time,  and  to  his 


60 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


return  the  people  confidently  looked  forward.  This  tradition 
proved  of  much  benefit  to  the  Spaniards,  for  coming  from  the 
east,  they  were  thought  to  be  the  representatives  of  the  Fair 
God.  Although  the  religion  of  the  Aztecs  was  in  many  re- 
spects an  enlightened  faith,  it  was  particularly  repulsive  to 
the  Spaniards  because  of  the  prevalence  of  human  sacrifices. 
The  country  abounded  in  temples,  which  were  constructed 
upon  great  mounds.  In  the  temple  proper  was  a great  sacri- 
ficial stone,  upon  which  human  beings  were  placed;  their 
breasts  were  opened  by  stone  knives,  and  their  hearts  torn  out. 
The  number  of  human  sacrifices  has  probably  been  exaggerated, 
but  undoubtedly  many  hundreds  perished  each  year  as  victims 
of  this  gross  superstition.1 

On  August  16,  1519,  immediately  after  the  destruction  of 
the  fleet,  Cortes  started  toward  the  capital  of  the  Aztec  em- 
pire, which  was  situated  on  an  island  in  the  largest  of  the 
inland  lakes.  He  had  succeeded  in  making  an  alliance  with  a 
coast  tribe,  the  Totonacs,  and  in  his  force  were  1,300  Indian 
warriors,  as  well  as  several  hundred  others  who  were  useful  in 
dragging  the  cannon  and  transporting  the  baggage.  He  now 
had  about  400  Spaniards,  15  horses,  and  7 cannon.  The  jour- 
ney was  without  special  incident  until  they  came  to  the  terri- 
tory of  the  unconquered  Tlascalans.  Cortes  sent  an  embassy 
to  the  Tlascalans,  requesting  that  he  be  permitted  to  pass 
through  their  territory,  but  without  avail.  After  several 

severe  engagements  with  these  fierce  war- 

The  March  to  Meiico  . , . . , , . . 

nors,  the  Spaniards  at  last  succeeded  in 
bringing  them  to  terms,  and  an  alliance  was  made  with  them. 
As  described  by  Cortes,  the  city  of  Tlascala  was  much  larger 
than  Granada;  there  were  many  houses  of  cut  stone,  public 
baths,  and  other  indications  of  an  advanced  stage  of  civiliza- 
tion. After  a sojourn  of  twenty  days  at  Tlascala  the  Spaniards 
continued  their  march,  the  next  stop  being  at  Cholula,  the 
sacred  city  of  the  Aztecs.  Here  Cortes  discovered  a plot  to 
destroy  the  Spaniards.  Gathering  the  Indians  in  great  num- 
bers in  the  public  square  of  the  city,  he  turned  his  cannon  upon 

1 According  to  Bernal  Diaz,  who  was  with  Cortes,  there  were  100,000  human  skulls  in  a 
receptacle  in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Cempoaila. 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  61 


them.  It  has  been  variously  estimated  that  from  six  hundred 
to  six  thousand  Indians  perished  in  this  slaughter.  Leaving 
the  city  of  blood,  the  Spaniards  climbed  to  the  ridge  of  the 
mountains  inclosing  the  capital  cities.  While  still  some  twenty 
miles  away  they  caught  their  first  view  of  the  splendid  valley 
of  Mexico  and  its  group  of  salt  lakes  and  remarkable  temples. 

At  last  the  little  band  of  adventurers  encamped  on  the  edge 
of  the  lake,  in  the  center  of  which  stood  the  Aztec  capital, 
connected  with  the  shore  by  stone  causeways.  “Who  shall 
describe  Mexico  of  the  age?  It  ought  to  be  one  who  has  seen 
all  the  wonders  of  the  world.  . . . The  especial  attributes  of 
the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  world  were  here  conjoined; 
and  that  which  was  the  sole  boast  of  many  a world-renowned 
name  formed  but  one  of  the  charms  of  this  enchanted  among 
cities.  . . . Like  Granada,  encircled  but  not  frowned  upon  by 
mountains;  fondled  and  adorned  by  water,  like  Venice;  as 
grand  in  its  buildings  as  Babylon  of  old;  and  rich  with  gardens 
like  Damascus;  the  City  of  Mexico  was  at 
that  time  the  fairest  in  the  world,  and  has 
never  since  been  equaled.  . . . She  was  not  only  the  city  of  a 
great  king  but  an  industrious  and  thriving  people.  Mexico 
was  situated  in  a great  salt  lake,  communicating  with  a fresh- 
water lake.  It  was  approached  by  three  principal  causeways — 
constructed  of  solid  masonry,  which,  to  use  the  picturesque 
language  of  the  Spaniards,  were  two  lances  in  breadth.”  1 One 
of  these  causeways  was  two  leagues  in  length  and  another  a 
league  and  a half.  These  principal  causeways  united  in  the 
middle  of  the  city  where  stood  the  great  temple.  In  Monte- 
zuma’s palace  there  was  a room  where  three  thousand  persons 
could  be  easily  accommodated,  and  in  the  city  was  a market 
place  where  fifty  thousand  people  could  buy  and  sell,  while 
the  great  temple  which  stood  in  the  center  of  the  city  occupied 
a space  twenty  times  as  great  as  the  market  place. 

It  was  on  November  8,  1519,  that  the  Spaniards  entered 
this  magnificent  city,  by  way  of  the  south  causeway.  As  they 
entered  they  were  met  by  a thousand  nobles,  and  then  came 


The  City  of  Mexico 


1 Sir  Arthur  Helps,  Spanish  Conquests  of  America. 


62 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Spaniards  Seize 
Montezuma 


Montezuma  himself.  The  Spaniards  were  assigned  quarters  in 
a council  house,  where  Cortes  at  once  took  the  precaution  to 
place  guards.  Soon  after  entering  the  city  Cortes  decided  to 
get  control  of  the  person  of  Montezuma.  This  stroke  had  to 
be  accomplished  by  deceit,  but  Cortes  was  fully  equal  to  it. 
Learning  of  an  attack  which  had  been  made  upon  the  Span- 
iards at  Vera  Cruz,  Cortes  went  to  Montezuma  and  accused 
him  of  inciting  it.  This  Montezuma  denied,  but  Cortes  told 
the  monarch  that  it  would  be  necessary  for 
him  to  come  and  stay  in  the  same  house 
with  the  Spaniards  until  the  affair  had  been 
cleared  up.  Thus  Cortes  obtained  possession  of  the  person  of 
the  Aztec  ruler,  who  was  never  to  regain  his  liberty.  A plot 
to  release  Montezuma  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
person  responsible  for  it,  the  nephew  of  the  ruler,  who  was 
king  of  Tezcuco,  was  captured  and  executed.  Montezuma 
was  now  persuaded  to  declare  his  vassalage  to  the  king  of 
Spain,  and  one  of  the  first  things  demanded  was  the  payment 
of  a great  quantity  of  gold,  amounting,  according  to  modern 
calculation,  to  something  near  $7,000,000.  Cortes  also  took 
good  care  to  find  out  where  this  supply  of  gold  came  from. 

While  these  things  had  been  taking  place  in  Mexico,  another 
expedition,  of  eighteen  vessels  and  some  twelve  hundred  sol- 
diers, under  the  command  of  Narvaez,  had  been  sent  out  from 
Cuba  by  the  suspicious  governor.  When  Cortes  learned  of 
the  landing  of  this  large  force  in  Mexico  (in  the  spring  of  1520) 
he  immediately  left  Mexico,  with  seventy  soldiers,  leaving  the 
forces  under  the  command  of  Alvarado.  It  was  the  plan  of 
Cortes  to  surprise  Narvdez  while  his  army  was  scattered.  This 
he  accomplished,  even  capturing  Narv&ez  himself.  After  this 
remarkable  feat  Cortes  persuaded  practically  the  whole  force 
oHNarvdez  to  join  his  expedition.  Meanwhile  things  in  Mex- 
ico had  gone  badly.  While  a brave  warrior,  Alvarado  was  a 
poor  commander,  lacking  the  craft  and  skill  which  Cortes  pos- 
sessed in  such  a high  degree.  Fearing  an  onslaught  of  the 
natives,  Alvarado  decided  to  attack  them  first,  choosing  their 
great  spring  festival  as  the  time  for  the  onslaught.  In  the 
fight  which  followed  some  six  hundred  Aztecs  were  killed.  In 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  63 


return  the  Spaniards  were  besieged  by  the  natives,  and  when 
Cortes  returned  he  found  the  streets  of  the  city  deserted,  the 
market  place  closed,  and  the  whole  city  had  taken  on  a de- 
serted appearance. 

There  followed  a fearful  attack  by  the  Aztecs.  Having  been 
deposed  by  his  people,  Montezuma  no  longer  exercised  a re- 
straining influence  over  them.  With  awful  fury  they  threw 
themselves  upon  the  Spaniards.  Cortes  attempted  to  allay 
their  wrath  by  sending  out  Montezuma  to  address  them,  but 
this  was  of  no  avail.  In  contempt  they  stoned  their  deposed 
emperor.  He  was  struck  upon  the  head  and  died  a few  days 
later,  on  June  30,  1520.  Finally  Cortes  decided  to  leave  the 
city,  and  on  July  1 the  retreat  began.  That  night  is  known  as 
“la  noche  triste”  among  the  Spaniards,  so  great  was  the  slaugh- 
ter. Cortes  started  from  the  city  with  1,250 

La  Noche  Triste 

Spaniards,  5,000  Tlascalans,  and  80  horses. 
When  the  next  morning  dawned  there  were  left  but  500  Span- 
iards, 2,000  Tlascalans,  and  20  horses;  all  his  cannon  were  in 
the  lake,  and  forty  Spaniards  were  in  the  clutches  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, doomed  to  be  sacrificed  to  Mexican  war  gods.  A few 
days  after  the  withdrawal  Indians  from  the  neighboring  towns 
attacked  the  Spaniards,  but  this  time  Cortes  was  able  to  de- 
feat them,  which  served  to  hold  the  allegiance  of  the  Tlascalans, 
who  had  been  on  the  verge  of  defection. 

After  such  an  experience  as  had  befallen  Cortes  the  ordinary 
leader  would  have  withdrawn  from  the  country,  but  not  so  with 
this  adventurer  par  excellence.  He  proceeded  to  gather  rein- 
forcements wherever  he  could.  Between  July  and  December, 
1520,  he  gathered  about  him  great  forces,  won  from  the  sur- 
rounding populations.  He  built  boats  on  the  lakes.  The 
four  ships  which  had  brought  the  force  of  Narv&ez  he  sent  to 
Hispaniola;  they  returned  with  horses,  men,  ammunition,  and 
arms.  By  Christmas  he  was  ready  once  more  to  attack  the 
City  of  Mexico.  His  army  now  numbered  700  infantry,  118 
arquebusiers,  86  cavalry,  a dozen  cannon,  and  several  thou- 
sand Indian  allies.  It  was  on  Christmas  day,  1520,  that  the 
reconquest  of  Mexico  began.  This  time  he  proceeded  to  at- 
tack and  conquer  the  cities  around  the  lakes  before  proceed- 


64 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Reconquest  of 
Mexico 


ing  to  the  great  central  city.  This  had  been  accomplished  by 
spring,  and  on  April  28  the  siege  of  Mexico 
began.  The  fighting  lasted  until  August  13, 
1521.  The  fresh- water  supply  of  the  city  was 
cut  off,  and  gradually,  inch  by  inch,  the  Spaniards  worked  their 
way  toward  the  city,  until  finally  all  native  resistance  was  at 
an  end.  The  canals  and  footways  were  filled  with  dead  In- 
dians and  the  magnificent  city  lay  a hopeless  mass  of  ruins. 
An  eyewitness  of  the  capture  of  Mexico  thus  describes  it:  “It 
is  true  and  I swear,  Amen,  that  all  the  lake  and  the  houses  and 
the  barbicans  were  full  of  the  bodies  and  heads  of  the  dead 
men,  so  that  I do  not  know  how  I may  describe  it.  For  in  the 
streets,  and  in  the  very  courts  of  Tlaltelulco,  there  were  no 
other  things,  and  we  could  not  walk  except  among  the  bodies 
and  heads  of  dead  Indians.” 

Soon  after  the  fall  of  the  city  Cortes  decided  to  make  it  his 
capital,  and  he  proceeded  to  reconstruct  it,  using  for  the  pur- 
pose the  Indians  of  the  valley.  Within  four  years  a new  city 
had  risen  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Aztec  capital.  The  plan  of  the 
new  metropolis,  the  city  Cortes  rebuilt,  followed  that  of  the  old, 
though  there  was  considerable  change  in  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture. While  the  city  was  being  rebuilt  enemies  of  the  con- 
queror were  active  at  court,  Cortes  for  some  reason  having 
gained  the  dislike  of  Fonseca,  the  head  of  the  department  of 
the  Indies.  Another  captain-general  was  sent  out,  whom  the 
Spaniards  in  Mexico  refused  to  receive;  finally,  after  an  in- 
vestigation, the  accusations  against  Cortes  were  dropped  and 
he  was  appointed  governor,  captain-general, 
and  chief  justice  of  New  Spain.  The  work 
of  Cortes  was  not  confined  to  the  capital, 
but  settlements  were  established  in  every  section  of  the  coun- 
try which  afforded  favorable  conditions.  Fleets  were  sent  out 
to  explore  the  Pacific  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Cristoval  de 
Olid  was  sent  by  Cortes  to  occupy  and  colonize  Honduras,  and 
Alvarado  was  put  at  the  head  of  a land  expedition  to  subdue 
Guatemala.  Within  three  years  after  the  conquest  of  Mexico 
a country  four  hundred  leagues  in  length  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
and  five  hundred  leagues  on  the  Pacific,  had  been  occupied 


Administration  of 
Cortes 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  65 


and  annexed  to  the  Castilian  crown,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  a few  interior  provinces,  had  been  brought  to  a condition  of 
entire  tranquillity. 


II.  The  Conquest  of  Peru 

We  have  already  noticed  the  founding  of  permanent  col- 
onies on  the  isthmus,  and  the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  by 
Balboa.  In  the  year  1519  the  city  of  Panama  was  founded  on 
the  Pacific  side  of  the  isthmus.  Soon  afterward  a rude  road 
was  cut  across,  connecting  Nombre  de  Dios  and  Panama.  In 
some  of  his  earlier  exploring  expeditions  Balboa  had  learned  of 
the  existence  of  a great  kingdom  to  the  southward.  He  had 
planned  an  expedition  in  that  direction,  having  carried  vessels 
piecemeal  across  the  isthmus,  and  had  col- 
ConqueBtof'peru  lected  three  hundred  men,  when  the  accusa- 
tions and  treachery  of  Pedrarias  cut  short 
his  career.  In  1522  the  first  attempt  to  reach  Peru  was  under- 
taken by  Pascual  de  Andagoya,  but  he  did  not  get  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  discoveries  of  Balboa.  After  the  circumnaviga- 
tion of  the  globe  had  been  accomplished  by  Magellan,  the 
attention  of  the  Spaniards  was  turned  decidedly  southward, 
and  it  was  not  long  until  the  golden  kingdom  to  the  south 
began  to  arouse  much  interest. 

After  the  failure  of  Andagoya’s  voyage  a partnership  was 
formed  between  Francisco  Pizarro,  whom  we  have  already  met 
in  the  Ojeda  colony,  an  illegitimate  son  of  a Spanish  officer; 
Almagro,  a daredevil  of  fiery  disposition  and  unknown  parent- 
age; and  Luque,  a priest  of  Panama,  who  served  as  a sort  of 
financial  agent  of  the  undertaking.  The  first  expedition  of 
the  partners  started  about  November  15,  1524,  under  the 
command  of  Pizarro.  There  were  two  vessels,  though  they 
did  not  sail  together.  This  expedition  returned  in  a very 
dilapidated  condition,  having  proceeded  only  as  far  south  as 
the  San  Juan  River.  Immediately  a second  voyage  was  con- 
templated, though  considerable  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
getting  under  way,  due  to  the  opposition  of  the  governor, 
Pedrarias.  Two  vessels  were  again  purchased  and  a hundred 
and  sixty  men  and  a few  horses  collected.  In  1526  they  sailed 


66 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


as  far  south  as  the  San  Juan;  here  Pizarro  landed  with  most 
The  First  (1524)  and  men>  while  Almagro  was  sent  back  to 

second  (1526)  Panama  after  supplies  and  reinforcements. 

Expeditions  of  Pizarro  Qn  return  Almagro  found  his  comrades 

nearly  dead  from  exposure  and  starvation.  Again  they 
started  southward,  only  to  experience  increased  hardships, 
when  finally  it  became  necessary  to  send  Almagro  back  once 
more  after  supplies.  Almagro  was  detained  by  Pedrarias,  who 
had  become  disgusted  at  the  wildgoose  chase,  and  sent  back 
another  captain  to  bring  Pizarro  and  his  men  back  to  Panama. 
Pizarro,  however,  refused  to  return,  and  for  seven  months  he, 
with  a few  companions,  remained  on  an  island,  where  they 
lived  mostly  on  shellfish.  Finally,  another  vessel  was  sent 
after  Pizarro,  which  returned,  after  having  made  a voyage  six 
hundred  miles  below  the  equator,  with  five  live  llamas,  vases 
of  gold,  and  several  Peruvians  on  board. 

On  his  return  after  his  second  unsuccessful  attempt  to  reach 
Peru,  Pizarro  visited  Spain,  hoping  to  organize  an  expedition 
independent  of  the  governor  of  Darien.  He  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining an  interview  with  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  and  from 
that  time  became  the  hero  of  the  hour.  He  was  made  captain- 
general  and  Adelantado  of  Peru,  and  in  1530  returned  to 
Panama,  with  his  four  brothers  and  a number  of  other  en- 
thusiastic followers.  Immediately  a third  expedition  was  pre- 
pared, which  set  sail  from  Panama  on  December  28,  1530. 

There  were  3 small  ships,  183  men,  and  37 
is3oThird  Expedltion’  horses.  After  thirteen  days’  sail  Pizarro 
landed  and  marched  along  the  coast,  cap- 
turing the  native  towns  as  he  came  to  them.  In  one  town  he 
seized  booty  amounting  to  15,000  pesos  in  gold  and  1,500 
marks  in  silver.  This  spoil  was  sent  back  to  Panama  in  the 
ships.  Pizarro  hoped  that  this  rich  haul  would  attract  others 
to  his  enterprise.  The  ships  were  gone  several  months,  and 
during  their  absence  Pizarro  and  his  men  suffered  great  hard- 
ships. In  1532  he  founded  the  town  of  San  Miguel,  where  he 
remained  several  months,  learning  of  other  populous  towns 
and  more  of  the  kingdom  he  had  set  out  to  conquer.  On  Sep- 
tember 24,  1532,  he  left  the  town  of  San  Miguel,  and  set  out 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  67 


Extent  of  the  Empire 
of  the  Incas 


for  the  important  Inca  town  of  Caxamarca,  which  he  entered 
on  November  15. 

Here  we  shall  leave  Pizarro,  and  turn  our  attention  to  the 
civilization  of  the  Incas,  and  the  internal  conditions  of  the 
country  at  the  time  of  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  territory  occupied  by  the  Peruvians  or  the  Incas  ex- 
tended from  about  the  second  degree  north  latitude,  the  pres- 
ent northern  boundary  of  the  republic  of  Ecuador,  to  about 
the  thirty-seventh  degree  south  latitude,  a distance  of  nearly 
3,000  miles  in  length,  and  from  300  to  350  in  breadth,  an  area 
of  some  800,000  square  miles.  The  physical  aspects  of  this 
country  are  peculiar  in  the  extreme.  The  lofty  Andes  fringe 
the  coast,  leaving  a narrow  belt  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea,  the  northern  part  of 
which  is  covered  with  tropical  vegetation, 
while  to  the  south  is  a rainless  desert.  The  face  of  the 
country  would  appear  peculiarly  unfitted  for  the  home  of 
a great  civilization,  and  yet  the  genius  of  the  Indians  over- 
came these  great  difficulties,  and  accomplished  results,  the 
remains  of  which  are  the  wonder  of  scholars  even  in  our  own 
day. 

The  civilization  of  the  country  was  very  old,  the  historical 
Incas  going  back  as  far  as  1380,  the  first1  Inca  beginning  to 
rule,  probably  as  early  as  1250.  The  culture  of  this  region, 
however,  goes  back  far  beyond  the  Incas.  The  tradition  of  the 
origin  of  Inca  civilization  is  as  follows: 
“Thousands  of  years  ago  there  lived  in  the 
highlands  of  Peru  a people  who  developed  a 
remarkable  civilization,  and  left  great  ruins,  Cyclopean  in  vast- 
ness. . . . These  people  were  attacked  by  barbarian  hordes  and 
were  driven  into  the  mountains,  where  they  built  a city  in  one 
of  the  most  inaccessible  Andean  canons.  Here  they  remained 
until  they  regained  their  military  strength,  and  finally,  their 
mountain  quarters  becoming  too  narrow,  they  left,  and  went 
back  to  the  vicinity  of  Cuzco,  where  they  established  the  Inca 


Origin  of  Inca 
Civilization 


1 The  title  “Inca”  was  applied  to  all  the  sovereigns,  but  at  first  was  the  tribal  name, 
and  was  applied  to  descendants  of  the  original  tribe. 


68 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


kingdom.”1  The  Inca  power  had  reached  its  height  at  the 
time  of  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  In  the 
“0D  °f  tte  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  Tupac 
Inca,  one  of  the  most  renowned  rulers,  had 
conquered  territory  to  the  south,  now  Chile,  and  had  also 
added  the  territory  of  Quito,  to  the  north,  which  rivaled  Peru 
in  wealth  and  refinement.  This  conquering  Inca  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Huayna  Capac,  who  died  in  1525.  This 
Inca  had  a multitude  of  concubines,  but  his  lawful  wife  had 
to  be  one  of  pure  Inca  blood.  To  this  lawful  wife  was  bom  the 
legal  heir,  Huascar,  but  the  Inca  also  had  a son  by  the  princess 
of  Quito,  Atahuallpa,  whom  he  loved  very  much,  and  instead 
of  leaving  the  whole  kingdom  to  the  lawful  heir,  he  divided  it, 
leaving  Quito  to  Atahuallpa.  When  the  Spaniards  arrived  in 
the  country  Atahuallpa  had  succeeded  by  treachery  in  seizing 
all  the  territory,  and  Huascar  and  his  brothers  were  prisoners. 

The  religion  of  the  Incas  was  a comparatively  high  type  of 
polytheism,  in  which  ancestor-worship  coexisted  with  sun- 
worship.  The  public  worship  was  sun-worship,  though  there 
was  some  reverence  paid  to  the  moon.  There  were  four  great 
festivals,  at  which  sacrifices  of  sheep,  rabbits,  and  birds  were 
made,  but  there  were  no  human  sacrifices,  at  least  at  the  time 
when  the  Spaniards  arrived.  There  was  a numerous  priest- 
hood, divided  into  many  divisions.  The  high  priest  was  chosen 
from  the  family  of  the  Inca,  and  the  chief  priest  of  each  prov- 
ince was  likewise  of  royal  blood.  Besides  the  priesthood  there 
were  the  virgins  of  the  sun,  whose  chief  duties  were  to  keep 
the  sacred  fires  burning  in  the  temples.  There  were  about 
fifteen  hundred  of  these  nuns  at  the  temple  in  Cuzco,  and  these 
virgins  were  the  concubines  of  the  Inca.  In  most  instances, 
however,  a man  was  allowed  but  one  wife.  The  agriculture  of 
the  Incas  was  carried  on  intensively,  indicat- 

Religion,  Agriculture,  ...  , . . 

and  industrial  mg  that  there  was  a large  population.  Car- 

organization  of  the  dens  were  carried  up  the  mountain  sides,  by 

means  of  terraces,  potatoes,  fine  cotton,  and 

maize  being  the  chief  crops.  The  Peruvians  were  familiar  with 

fertilizer,  using  guano  and  small  fish  for  that  purpose.  The 

1 National  Geographic  Magazine,  April,  1913. 


Adapted  from  Prescott’s  Conquest  of  Peru 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  69 


people  were  also  skillful  in  the  weaving  of  woolen  and  cotton 
cloth  and  in  the  molding  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  which 
were  used  extensively  in  the  temples  and  for  personal  adorn- 
ment. They  had  no  form  of  writing,  but  kept  records  by 
means  of  knotted  cords.  In  this  respect  the  Incas  were  not 
equal  to  the  Aztecs.  Before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards, 
Peruvian  society  was  very  highly  organized,  families  and  vil- 
lages being  classified  according  to  the  decimal  system.  The 
land  was  divided  into  units,  the  smallest  being  enough  to  sup- 
port man  and  wife.  As  children  were  bom,  land  was  added 
sufficient  for  their  support.  There  was  no  private  ownership 
of  land;  all  belonged  to  the  community.  Such  was  the  civiliza- 
tion for  the  conquest  of  which  Pizarro  had  led  his  little  band 
of  adventurers  down  the  west  coast  of  South  America. 

By  November,  1532,  Pizarro  had  reached  the  town  of  Caxa- 
marca,  where  he  found  the  Inca  Atahuallpa  encamped.  Pi- 
zarro sent  Hernando  de  Soto  and  his  elder  brother  Fernando 
to  visit  the  camp  of  the  Inca,  having  meanwhile  made  plans 
to  get  possession  of  his  person,  being  influenced  no  doubt  by 
Cortes  and  his  seizure  of  Montezuma.  The  meeting  between 
Pizarro  and  Inca  was  attended  with  all  the  ceremonies  known 
to  each.  The  priest  Valverde,  who  accompanied  Pizarro,  at 
once  began  a long  discourse  before  the  Inca,  summing  up  the 
history  and  theology  of  the  church,  ending  it  by  handing  the 
Inca  a copy  of  the  Bible,  which  Atahuallpa  threw  in  the  dust. 
This  act  of  sacrilege  on  the  part  of  Atahuallpa  aroused  the  ire 
of  the  Spaniards.  They  proceeded  to  avenge 

Atahuaui!Te  Inca  For  tw0  hours  the  slaughter  of  the  help- 

less Indians  continued,  Pizarro  himself  killing 
most  of  the  attendants  of  the  Inca  and  capturing  the  ruler. 
It  has.  been  estimated  that  the  number  of  Indians  killed  in 
this  senseless  slaughter  ranged  from  two  thousand  to  seven 
thousand.  After  his  capture  Atahuallpa  was  confined  in  a 
room  of  the  building  occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  and  was  at 
first  treated  with  consideration.  Observing  the  desire  of  the 
Spaniards  for  the  precious  metals,  the  Inca  agreed  to  fill  the 
room  in  which  he  was  confined  with  gold  to  provide  his  ransom, 
and  it  was  to  be  collected  in  about  two  months.  To  this  propo- 


70 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


sition  Pizarro  agreed,  and  gold  in  the  shape  of  vases,  and  tem- 
ple vessels,  began  to  be  brought  in,  until  by  June,  1533,  the 
stipulated  quantity  was  nearly  complete. 

Meanwhile  Huascar,  the  deposed  Inca,  having  heard  of 
Atahuallpa’s  ransom,  sent  word  to  the  Spaniards  that  he 
would  give  even  a larger  sum  if  they  would  set  him  free  and 
support  him  against  the  usurper.  In  some  way  Atahuallpa 
heard  of  the  offer  of  Huascar,  and  soon  after  Huascar  was 
found  secretly  murdered.  At  this  murder  the  Spaniards  be- 
came alarmed,  fearing  that  Atahuallpa  had  means  of  arousing 
the  country  unknown  to  them,  and  they  proceeded  to  bring 
Atahuallpa  to  trial  for  the  murder  of  his  half  brother.  Ac- 
cordingly, a trial  was  instituted,  and  after  going  through  the 
forms,  Atahuallpa  was  duly  convicted  and  sentenced  to  be 
burned  at  the  stake,  though  after  he  had 
Atahuallpa  consented  to  baptism,  he  was  granted  the 

boon  of  being  strangled  with  a bow  string  in 
the  public  square  at  Caxamarca,  on  August  29,  1533.  At  the 
death  of  the  Inca,  Pizarro  proclaimed  one  of  the  Inca’s  sons 
his  successor,  but  this  son  soon  died.  In  September,  1533,  the 
Spaniards  left  Caxamarca  and  proceeded  toward  Cuzco,  the 
Inca  capital.  On  the  way  they  were  attacked  by  six  thousand 
Indians,  but  the  Spaniards  easily  beat  them  off,  and  soon  after 
this  Manco,  the  son  of  Huascar,  came  to  Pizarro.  After  mak- 
ing his  submission  he  was  proclaimed  Inca,  and  he  and  Pizarro 
entered  Cuzco  together. 

Pizarro  now  sent  Fernando,  his  eldest  brother,  back  to  Spain 
with  the  king’s  part  of  Atahuallpa’s  ransom.  His  arrival  in 
Spain  aroused  great  excitement.  In  January,  1535,  Pizarro 
founded  the  town  of  Lima,  which  was  soon  destined  to  become 
the  most  important  city  in  the  New  World.  While  he  was 
busy  at  this  task  his  brother  returned  from  Spain,  bringing  him 
news  that  he  had  been  made  a marquis  and  was  to  rule  over 
the  territory  two  hundred  and  seventy  leagues  south  of  the 
river  Santiago,  while  Almagro  had  been  made  a marshal  and 
was  to  be  the  ruler  over  the  territory  to  the  south  of  Pizarro. 
Pizarro’s  territory  was  to  be  called  New  Castile,  and  Almagro’s 
New  Toledo.  This  division  of  territory  led  to  far-reaching 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  71 


trouble  between  the  partners,  for  both  claimed  Cuzco  as  falling 
Division  of  the  within  their  jurisdiction.  Almagro  later  started 

Territory  and  Manco’s  for  what  is  now  Chile  with  two  hundred  men 
insurrection  to  conquer  the  territory  over  which  he  had 

been  appointed  to  rule.  No  sooner  had  Almagro  departed 
than  Manco,  the  Inca,  raised  a revolt.  At  first  he  had  wel- 
comed the  Spaniards’  help  in  the  government  of  his  kingdom, 
but  as  he  saw  them  despoiling  temples,  seizing  estates,  and  en- 
slaving his  people,  the  glamour  of  the  white  man  departed. 
The  Indians  besieged  Cuzco  for  six  months,  from  February  to 
August,  1536,  when  finally  Fernando  Pizarro  relieved  the  city 
and  the  Indians  retired.  The  retiring  Indians  met  the  forces  of 
Almagro  returning  from  Chile,  and  were  again  defeated. 

The  next  turn  in  this  tangled  story  is  the  attempt  of  Alma- 
gro to  seize  Cuzco.  Almagro  had  found  no  great  and  wealthy 
cities  in  Chile  to  plunder,  and  he  had  returned  to  renew  his 
claim  to  Cuzco.  He  in  turn  laid  siege  to  the  Inca  capital  April, 
1537,  when  he  seized  the  city,  capturing  the  two  Pizarro  broth- 
ers, Fernando  and  Gonzalo.  This  act  of  Almagro’s  started  a 
civil  war  in  Peru  which  lasted  eleven  years.  Finally,  Almagro 
was  captured  by  the  Pizarros,  was  tried  for  sedition  and  exe- 
cuted. In  1539  Fernando  Pizarro  again  returned  to  Spain  with 
great  treasures.  On  account  of  the  troubles  in  Peru  he  was 
not  permitted  to  return,  and  he  finally  died  on  his  estates  in 
civil  war  in  Peru.  Spain  in  1578,  at  a great  age.  After  the 
The  Death  of  Almagro  death  of  Almagro  his  partisans  were  treated 
and  the  Pizarros  harshly  by  the  Pizarros,  and  in  1541  a plot 
was  laid  by  them  to  kill  Francisco  Pizarro.  On  June  26  of  this 
year  nineteen  men  succeeded  in  breaking  into  his  palace  at 
Lima  and  murdered  the  old  man,  and  proclaimed  an  illegiti- 
mate son  of  Almagro,  known  as  “Almagro  the  Boy,”  governor 
of  Peru.  Meanwhile  there  arrived  from  Spain  Vaca  de  Castro, 
a learned  judge  sent  out  by  Charles  V to  advise  Pizarro  in  the 
government  of  Peru.  He  arrived  just  at  the  time  of  the  death 
of  Pizarro,  and  at  once  assumed  the  governorship.  A conflict 
arose  between  the  partisans  of  Almagro  the  Boy  and  Castro, 
and  a battle  was  fought  in  which  young  Almagro  was  defeated 
and  captured,  and  finally  beheaded. 


72 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Last  of  the 
Pizarros 


The  last  of  the  Pizarros  to  succumb  was  Gonzalo.  In  1539 
he  had  been  placed  over  Quito  by  his  brother  Francisco,  and 
had  made  an  exploring  expedition  eastward  over  the  Andes  as 
far  as  the  Napo  River.  Later,  in  1542,  when  what  was  known 
as  the  “New  Laws”  lately  framed  in  Spain  under  the  influence 
of  Las  Casas,  to  protect  the  Indians,  were  proclaimed  in  Peru, 
he  headed  an  insurrection  against  their  enforcement  and  was 
captured  and  beheaded.  The  death  of  Gon- 
zalo Pizarro  ended  the  strange  and  turbulent 
career  of  the  Pizarro  brothers  in  Peru,  al- 
though peace  did  not  come  to  the  country  for  several  years. 
In  1551  the  first  of  the  long  line  of  viceroys  arrived  in  Lima, 
in  the  person  of  Don  Antonio  de  Mendoza,  and  with  his  arrival 
the  period  of  the  conquest  came  to  an  end.  The  Indians  were 
subdued,  Spanish  government  was  established  in  the  land, 
Spanish  towns  founded,  and  more  than  eight  thousand  Span- 
iards had  come  out  to  Peru  as  settlers. 

The  discovery  and  conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru  had  a dis- 
astrous effect  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  older  Spanish  settle- 
ments on  the  islands.  Naturally,  the  abundant  supplies  of 
precious  metals  found  by  the  followers  of  Cortes  and  Pizarro 
attracted  the  population  of  the  islands,  and  those  who  re- 
mained were  poverty-stricken  and  neglected.  In  1574  there 
remained  only  about  a thousand  Spaniards  on  the  island  of 
Hispaniola,  engaged  mostly  in  sugar  and  stock-raising.  In  the 
same  year  Cuba  had  a Spanish  population  of  only  two  hundred 
and  forty,  while  Santiago,  which  had  formerly  been  a city  of 
Effect  of  the  conquest  about  a thousand  Spaniards,  now  contained 
but  thirty.  Havana  had  a Spanish  population 
of  only  seventy,  while  Porto  Rico  and  Jamaica 
were  in  the  same  plight.  In  contrast  to  the  depleted  condition 
in  the  islands  was  the  flourishing  condition  in  Mexico  and 
Peru.1  In  1574  Mexico  City  contained  a population  of  fifteen 
thousand  Spaniards,  with  public  buildings,  churches,  schools,  a 
university,  and  well-built  houses;  Vera  Cruz  boasted  some  two 
hundred  Spanish  families,  all  merchants  and  shopkeepers; 


of  Mexico  and  Peru 
on  the  Islands 


1 Bourne,  Spain  in  America,  pp.  196-201,  from  Juan  Loprez  de  Velasco  Geografia  y 
Descripcion  Universal  de  las  Indias. 


SAX  MARTIN 


FRANCISCO  PIZARRO 
CORTES 


FRANCISCO  DE  MIRANDA 
MONTEZUMA  II 


CONQUESTS  OF  MEXICO,  PERU,  CHILE  73 


Quito  contained  some  four  hundred  Spanish  families,  a hos- 
pital, and  three  monasteries;  Lima  contained  a Spanish  popula- 
tion of  two  thousand  families,  besides  a large  Indian  popula- 
tion, and  already  the  city  was  becoming  famous  for  the  number 
of  its  church  institutions. 

III.  The  Conquest  of  Chile 

When  Chile  first  became  known  to  the  Spaniards  her  in- 
habitants had  advanced  beyond  the  first  stage  of  society,  for 
they  lived  a settled  life  and  practiced  agriculture.  They  lived 
in  village  communities,  the  land  being  held  by  the  whole  com- 
munity, though  the  several  members  of  the  village  held  private 
property.  The  people  of  Chile,  however,  had  not  nearly  reached 
the  stage  of  development  that  obtained  in  Peru  and  Mexico. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  coming  of  Almagro,  in  the  year 
1535,  with  five  hundred  and  seventy  Spaniards  and  an  army  of 
Peruvians,  to  conquer  the  territory  which  had  been  given  him 
by  the  king  of  Spain.  Almagro’s  attempted  conquest  was  a 
sad  failure.  The  horrors  of  his  march  along  the  summit  of  the 
Andes  have  been  vividly  described  by  Prescott  in  his  Conquest 

Almagro’s  Attempted  of  Peru-  By  the  time  the  expedition  reached 
Conquest  of  chile,  the  interior  of  the  country  many  had  died 
of  cold  and  hunger.  At  first  the  natives 
were  friendly,  looking  upon  the  Spaniards  as  a superior  race 
of  beings,  but  when  the  Spaniards  began  to  repay  the  natives’ 
trust  and  kindness  by  cruelty  and  murder,  they  took  up  arms, 
and  so  effective  was  their  resistance  that  Almagro  abandoned 
his  expedition  and  returned  to  Peru. 

In  the  year  1540  Pizarro,  having  determined  to  conquer 
Chile,  sent  Pedro  de  Valdivia  with  a force  of  two  hundred 
Spaniards  and  a large  number  of  Peruvians  to  conquer  and 
colonize  the  territory.  Valdivia  met  with  a determined  re- 
sistance on  the  part  of  the  natives,  but  he  pushed  his  way  into 
the  country,  and  in  1541  founded  the  city  of  Santiago,  naming  it 
in  honor  of  the  patron  saint  of  Spain.  Pushing  southward, 
Valdivia  founded  Imperial  and  Concepcion,  and  later  the  city 
of  Valdivia,  this  town  being  the  first  instance  in  which  a Span- 
iard gave  his  name  to  a settlement.  In  the  planting  of  these 


74 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Valdivia  Establishes 
Colonies  in  Chile 


more  southern  cities  Valdivia  met  a new  enemy  in  the  fierce 
Araucanians,  and  in  1553  he  met  his  death  in  fighting  these 
warlike  Indians.  On  the  death  of  Valdivia  the  viceroy  of  Peru 
sent  his  son,  Don  Garcia  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  as  governor  of 
Chile.  The  year  1553  also  marked  the  beginning  of  the  long 
Araucanian  wars,  which  were  to  last  for  more  than  a century. 
So  successful  were  the  Indians  in  their  wars  against  the  Span- 
iards that  in  1598  they  expelled  the  Span- 
iards from  nearly  all  the  settlements  they  had 
established  in  Chile.  On  account  of  the  con- 
tinued war  large  bodies  of  troops  were  stationed  within  the 
territory.  The  loose  tribal  organization  of  the  Indians  made 
it  almost  impossible  to  conquer  them,  for  they  could  retire 
into  the  mountains  and  thickly  wooded  country  and  the  Span- 
iards were  thus  kept  from  inflicting  any  decisive  defeat  upon 
them.  General  after  general  and  army  after  army  were  sent 
from  Peru  and  Spain,  but  still  the  war  went  on  and  the  natives 
remained  unconquered.  The  first  lull  in  this  long  war  did  not 
come  until  1640,  when  a treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between 
the  Spaniards  and  the  natives.  The  treaty  provided  that  the 
Biobio  River  was  to  be  the  boundary  between  the  Spaniards 
and  the  Araucanians,  and  the  Indians  were  to  recognize  the 
king  of  Spain  as  their  feudal  superior.  This  peace  lasted  for 
fifteen  years,  when  war  once  more  broke  out.  This  struggle 
lasted  until  1724,  when  a new  peace  was  signed  which  lasted 
until  1766.  The  third  war  lasted  until  1780,  when  a peace  was 
signed  which  continued  until  the  end  of  the  colonial  period.  In 
no  country  in  South  America  did  the  Spaniards  meet  such 
persistent  opposition  as  they  experienced  in  Chile  from  the 
invincible  Araucanians. 


READING  REFERENCES 

The  classic  accounts  of  the  conquests  are  The  Conquest  of  Mexico  and 
The  Conquest  of  Peru,  by  William  H.  Prescott.  Their  chief  fault  arises 
perhaps  from  a somewhat  too  exuberant  imagination  on  the  part  of  their 
author.  They  are,  however,  well  worth  a careful  reading,  because  of 
scholarship  and  literary  power.  A somewhat  more  sober  account,  one 
written  from  a more  critical  point  of  view,  is  Spanish  Conquest  of  America, 
by  Sir  Arthur  Helps.  4 vols.  (1900-1904). 

Discovery  of  America,  by  John  Fiske,  Vol.  II,  is  a much  briefer  account. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLONIES 
OF  SPAIN:  VENEZUELA,  COLOMBIA,  AND  LA 
PLATA 

The  colonies  of  Spain  in  America  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  according  to  their  products:  (1)  the  mineral-producing 
colonies;  (2)  the  agricultural  colonies.  The  chief  colonies  of 
the  first  type  are  Mexico  and  Peru,  while  the  representative 
colonies  of  the  second  class  are  Venezuela,  New  Granada,  and 
the  colonies  established  along  the  Rio  de  La  Plata.  Naturally, 
the  Spaniard’s  chief  interest  was  in  those  colonies  where  the 
precious  metals  were  found  in  abundance,  while  the  agricul- 
tural colonies  might  be  termed  the  neglected  colonies.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  recount  the  founding  of  these 
neglected  colonies. 

Venezuela 

The  coast  of  what  is  now  Venezuela  was  the  first  part  of  the 
mainland  of  America  to  be  sighted  by  Columbus.  In  the  year 
following  (1499)  Ojeda,  accompanied  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  ex- 
plored a much  greater  sectidn  of  the  coast.  It  was  this  expedi- 
tion of  Ojeda’s  which  gave  the  name  “Venezuela”  to  the 
Discovery  and  Eariy  country.  The  Spaniards,  seeing  the  native 

colonization  of  huts  built  upon  piles,  to  keep  them  above 

the  swampy  ground,  called  the  country  Vene- 
zuela, or  little  Venice.  These  Spaniards  made  some  attempts 
at  settlement,  but  with  little  success.  During  these  early  years 
of  Spanish  dominion  the  northern  part  of  South  America  was 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Hispaniola.  In  1527  an  expedition  of 
sixty  men  from  the  island  founded  the  city  of  Coro,  which 
became  the  seat  of  government,  and  so  remained  until  1576. 

The  real  reduction  of  the  territory,  however,  was  accomplished 
by  the  agents  of  the  German  merchant  house  of  the  Welsers. 
Charles  V had  borrowed  heavily  of  this  house,  and  in  payment 
he  bestowed  upon  them  the  province  of  Venezuela,  to  be  held 

75 


76 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


as  a fief  of  the  crown  of  Castile.  The  title  of  “adelantado” 
was  to  be  given  to  the  person  whom  the  Welsers  should  nom- 
inate, and  the  right  of  making  slaves  of  the  Indians  who  re- 
sisted them  was  permitted.  Unfortunately,  the  Welsers  com- 
mitted the  carrying  out  of  the  plan  to  some  adventurers,  who, 
instead  of  developing  the  country,  spent  their  time  in  plun- 
The  Period  of  the  dering  and  enslaving  the  Indians.  They 
German  Merchants,  wandered  from  district  to  district  in  search 
1527-1545  of  mines,  and  their  cruelty  and  avarice  made 

the  exactions  of  the  Spaniards  seem  mild  in  comparison.  For 
eighteen  years  the  Welsers  held  power  in  Venezuela,  and  the 
only  civilizing  thing  accomplished  was  the  founding  of  the  city 
of  Tocuyo.  In  1545  the  grant  was  rescinded  and  the  Welsers 
willingly  relinquished  their  right,  for  the  province  was  so  deso- 
lated that  it  hardly  afforded  a subsistence  to  the  few  Europeans 
dwelling  in  the  territory.  With  the  withdrawal  of  the  Ger- 
mans a Spanish  governor  was  sent  out,  and  under  the  new 
administration  the  selling  of  Indians  as  slaves  ceased,  though 
they  were  distributed  among  the  Spanish  settlers  under  the 
law  of  encomiendas. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  history 
of  the  territory  is  made  up  of  accounts  of  exploring  expeditions, 
of  the  founding  of  towns,  and  of  Indian  wars.  The  first  Span- 
ish governor  was  Perez  de  Tolosa,  whose  administration  ended 
with  his  death  in  1548.  During  all  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  coast  was  much  troubled  with  free- 
booters and  pirates,  whose  repeated  attacks  kept  the  country 
in  a constant  state  of  apprehension  and  uncertainty.  Espe- 
Free-booting  and  cially  was  this  true  after  the  trade  in  Negro 

piracy  Along  the  slaves  became  active.  English  adventurers, 

Venezuelan  coast  following  the  example  of  John  Hawkins  and 

Drake,  opened  up  a profitable  trade  between  the  Guinea  coast 
of  Africa  and  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  Many  of 
these  adventurers  became  pirates  pure  and  simple,  with  head- 
quarters in  the  Bahamas,  or  on  the  other  small  islands,  and 
made  a business  of  raiding  the  Spanish  colonies  or  capturing 
treasure  ships.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  made  two  expeditions  to 
the  Venezuelan  coast  in  search  of  the  fictitious  kingdom  of  El 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLONIES 


77 


Dorado.  On  the  first  trip,  made  in  1598,  he  sailed  four  hun- 
dred miles  up  the  Orinoco,  and  on  returning  wrote  a valuable 
description  of  the  country  he  had  discovered. 

In  1550  Venezuela  became  a captaincy-general,  though  it 
was  not  until  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  that  a set- 
tled government  was  established.  Caracas  was  founded  in 
1567  under  the  name  Santiago  de  Leon  de  Caracas,  and  became 
the  capital  of  the  captaincy-general  in  1576.  The  city  of  Barce- 
lona was  founded  in  1617  and  soon  became  the  center  for  agri- 
cultural products,  as  it  was  situated  near 

Progress  in  Venezuela  . . . 

fertile  grazing  and  agricultural  lands.  The 
crops  raised  by  Negro  and  Indian  labor  were  maize,  potatoes, 
bananas,  and  in  the  higher  valleys,  wheat  and  other  small 
grains,  as  well  as  tobacco  and  sugar.  Cocoa  trees  were  intro- 
duced in  spite  of  the  Spanish  government,  and  an  illegal  trade 
in  cocoa  soon  grew  up.  The  Spanish  government  prohibited 
the  exportation  of  agricultural  products,  and  it  was  not  until  a 
more  liberal  trade  policy  was  introduced  that  Venezuela  began 
to  prosper. 

New  Granada 

New  Granada  was  the  scene  of  the  first  attempt  to  found 
colonies  on  the  mainland  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1508  Ojeda, 
having  obtained  a grant  from  the  king  of  territory  from  Cape 
de  la  Vela  to  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  attempted  colonization  with 
disastrous  results.  The  first  permanent  set- 

Early  Colonization  ^ * . 

tlement  was  at  Santa  Marta,  which  was 
founded  in  1525,  but  it  was  little  more  than  a slave-catching 
station.  Expeditions  from  Hispaniola  scoured  the  country  for 
Indian  slaves,  who  were  sent  to  the  island  to  work  the  mines 
and  plantations.  Coro,  in  Venezuela,  established  in  1527,  was 
likewise  a slave-catching  center,  and  expeditions  from  these 
two  centers  penetrated  into  what  is  now  Colombia,  and  in  a 
few  years  the  Spaniards  had  a fair  idea  of  the  geography  of  the 
country. 

The  real  colonization,  however,  began  with  the  founding  of 
Cartagena,  in  1533,  by  Heredia,  who  established  his  colony  as  a 
gold-seeking  center.  Heredia  and  his  men  were  successful  in 
finding  profitable  gold  washings,  and  it  is  said  they  received  a 


78 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


larger  amount  of  gold  than  even  the  conquerors  of  Mexico  or 
Peru.  Other  cities  were  founded  in  succeeding  years.  Benal- 
cazar,  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  Pizarro,  after  conquering  Quito, 
proceeded  northward  into  the  valley  of  the  Cauca,  finally 
meeting  the  men  from  the  north  coming  down  from  Santa 
Marta  and  Cartagena.  In  1536  Quesada  started  from  Santa 
Marta  with  eight  hundred  followers  and  a hundred  horses  on 
Establishment  of  311  expedition  into  the  most  populous  part  of 
Santa  Marta,  Carta-  the  country.  He  made  his  way  up  the  Mag- 
gena,  and  Bogota  dalena  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Bogota,  the 
native  capital.  Quesada  encountered  almost  unsurmountable 
obstacles,  for  the  country  is  very  difficult,  and  by  the  time 
Bogota  was  reached  three  fourths  of  his  men  had  been  lost. 
The  high  plateau  about  Bogota  was  inhabited  by  a race  known 
as  Chibchas,  who  had  reached  a grade  of  civilization  only 
slightly  inferior  to  that  of  the  Aztecs  or  the  Peruvians.  They 
lived  in  houses,  wore  clothes  of  cotton  cloth,  made  ornaments 
of  gold,  and  had  carried  agriculture  to  a high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. In  government  and  military  organization,  however,  they 
were  far  inferior  to  the  Mexicans  or  Incas,  and  Quesada  found 
little  difficulty  in  conquering  them.  In  1538  he  established  the 
Spanish  city  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  on  the  site  of  the  native 
capital. 

In  the  meantime  other  Spaniards  from  Quito  and  Cartagena 
had  penetrated  into  the  high  and  fertile  plateau,  and  other 
cities  were  soon  established.  Within  twenty-five  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  first  Spanish  colony  the  Spaniards  were  in 
undisputed  control  of  the  country.  The  reported  fertility  of 
the  region  caused  a stream  of  settlers  to  flow  in,  and  flourishing 
communities,  both  along  the  coast  and  in  the  interior,  were 
New  Granada  in  the  planted.  The  natives  were  reduced  to  the 
Latter  sixteenth  and  state  of  serfs  under  the  encomienda  system, 
Seventeenth  Centuries  ^ eisewhere  in  Latin  America.  In  1550  the 

Royal  Audiencia  of  Bogota  was  established,  and  in  1554  a 
presidency  was  established.  The  first  president  was  Andres 
Venero  de  Leyva,  under  whose  administration  the  country  was 
well  governed.  Roads  were  built,  schools  established,  coinage 
introduced,  and  the  country  as  a whole  greatly  prospered. 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLONIES 


79 


Following  De  Leyva,  who  ruled  until  1575,  there  was  a long 
series  of  governors,  who  came  and  went  "without  producing 
much  change.  In  1718  New  Granada  was  made  a vice-royalty. 
Until  that  time  it  had  been  a part  of  the  vice-royalty  of  Peru. 

Rio  de  La  Plata  Colonies 

The  earliest  explorers  of  the  La  Plata  were  not  interested  in 
the  colonization  of  the  country,  but,  rather,  in  trying  to  find  a 
way  through  the  continent  to  the  coveted  east.  In  1511  Juan 
Diaz  de  Solis  entered  the  Rio  de  La  Plata  with  this  end  in  view. 
Fifteen  years  later  Sebastian  Cabot,  the  Pilot  Major  of  Spain, 
took  an  expedition  up  the  Parana  in  the  hope  of  thus  reaching 
the  Pacific.  He  sailed  up  the  river  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tercero, 
The  Early  Explorers  where  a colony  was  founded  and  named  San 

of  the  Rio  de  La  Espfritu.  This  was  the  first  Spanish  settle- 

ment in  this  part  of  South  America.  The 
colony  was  composed  of  one  hundred  and  seventy  men,  but 
with  Cabot’s  return  to  Spain,  in  1530,  it  soon  disappeared  be- 
fore the  onslaughts  of  famine  and  hostile  savages.  Cabot, 
however,  returning  to  Spain,  gave  glowing  reports  of  the  coun- 
try, but  was  unable  to  report  any  gold  or  a native  civilization 
to  plunder.  For  this  reason  the  country  did  not  prove  greatly 
attractive  to  the  Spaniard.  The  enthusiasm  of  Cabot,  how- 
ever, aroused  the  interest  of  one  man,  Pedro  de  Mendoza,  and 
it  was  due  to  his  efforts  that  the  first  permanent  colony  was 
established  on  the  La  Plata. 

Mendoza  was  a nobleman  with  influential  connections  at 
court.  He  succeeded  in  making  a contract  with  the  king  which 
provided  that  he  should  be  made  adelantado  of  the  region  to 
be  settled,  on  condition  that  he  send  over  one  thousand  men,  a 
number  of  ecclesiastics,  and  two  hundred  horses.  The  expedi- 
tion was  thoroughly  organized  according  to  the  Spanish  model. 
Such  prestige  did  the  undertaking  gain  in  Spain  that  volun- 
teers flocked  to  the  enterprise,  and  instead  of  one  thousand 

Founding  of  the  First  men  there  were  tw0  thousand  five  hundred 
Colony  on  the  La  when  they  finally  set  sail  on  September  1, 

puta  1534.  The  colony  landed  at  the  present  site 

of  Buenos  Ayres  in  February,  1535,  where  they  founded  a city 


80 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Founding  of 
Asuncio'n 


and  named  it  Santa  Maria  de  Buenos  Ayres.  To  this  new  city, 
however,  prosperity  failed  to  come.  Instead  there  came  famine 
and  pestilence,  which  rapidly  decreased  their  number,  until  a 
year  from  their  landing  there  were  but  six  or  seven  hundred 
remaining.  The  Indians  inhabiting  the  region  were  savages 
and  lived  in  small  tribes  scattered  over  the  plains.  These 
Indians  were  extremely  hostile  to  the  Spanish  settlers  and  car- 
ried on  constant  warfare  against  them.  Finally,  the  desperate 
colonists  abandoned  their  settlement  and  fled  up  the  river, 
hoping  either  to  find  El  Dorado  or  reach  the  colonies  already 
established  about  Lake  Titicaca. 

Pushing  up  the  Paraguay,  the  party  finally  divided.  One 
group,  under  the  command  of  Irala,  remained  behind  and 
founded  a permanent  settlement  on  the  present  site  of  Asun- 
cion. About  two  hundred  of  the  adventurers 
continued  up  the  river,  but  were  never  heard 
of  again.  Years  afterward  friendly  Indians 
reported  that  they  had  reached  the  slopes  of  the  Bolivian 
mountains,  where  they  had  found  much  gold  and  silver,  and 
were  returning  with  their  treasure  when  they  were  ambushed 
by  hostile  Indians  and  perished  to  the  last  man. 

The  new  colony  established  at  Asuncion  was  very  far  away, 
a thousand  miles  from  the  coast,  and  was  left  much  alone.  In 
1540  a new  adelantado,  De  Vaca,  was  appointed.  He  succeeded 
in  making  his  way  to  the  settlement,  but  the  settlers  soon  tired 
of  his  rule  and  he  was  sent  back  to  Spain.  The  colonists  then 
selected  Irala  as  governor.  He  continued  the  dominating  figure 
in  the  colony  until  his  death  in  1567.  The  rule  of  Irala  was  im- 
portant because  of  the  relationship  which  he  established  be- 
tween the  settlers  and  the  Indians.  Laws 
oMmn“iniSsunci“n  were  made  providing  that  any  Spaniard 
might  conquer  a tribe  of  Indians  and  become 
its  master,  holding  it  under  the  title  of  encomienda.  Polygamy 
was  also  introduced,  which  became  general  in  the  colony.  Irala 
himself  espoused  the  seven  daughters  of  a certain  Indian 
cacique,  and  each  of  the  soldiers  was  allowed  two  wives.  This 
led  to  a rapid  mingling  of  the  blood  of  the  Spaniards  with  the 
natives.  The  horses  brought  by  the  Spaniards  multiplied  rap- 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLONIES 


81 


idly,  as  did  also  their  sheep  and  cattle,  and  it  was  not  long 
until  vast  herds  of  live  stock  were  wandering  over  the  limitless 
pampas.  Pastoral  life  more  and  more  appealed  to  the  Span- 


increasingly  important  in  the  valleys  of  the  great  rivers. 

While  Asuncion  was  struggling  for  life  other  attempts  were 
made  to  found  a city  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  In  1542  De 
Vaca  arrived  from  Spain,  on  his  way  to  Asuncion,  with  four 
hundred  Spaniards,  and  a second  attempt  was  made  to  estab- 
lish Buenos  Ayres.  The  site  selected  for  the  city  was  “one  of 
the  worst  ever  chosen  for  a city.”  It  has  one  of  the  worst  har- 
bors in  the  world  for  a great  commercial  center,  but  the  Span- 
iards persisted  in  their  efforts  and  to-day  Buenos  Ayres,  the 
greatest  city  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  is  a monument  to  the 


attempt,  but  failed  as  badly  as  either  of  his  predecessors.  De 
Garay,  a man  of  energy  and  foresight,  who  had  taken  a prom- 
inent part  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  was  the  leader  who  finally 
solved  the  difficulties  of  establishing  a city  on  the  coast.  In 
1576  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  and  captain-general 
of  Rio  de  La  Plata,  and  continued  his  rule  until  slain  by  the 
Indians  in  1584.  Under  him  many  colonies  were  established 
in  different  parts  of  the  territory,  among  them  Santa  Fe.  In 
the  spring  of  1580  he  sent  overland  from  Santa  Fe  two  hun- 
dred Indian  families,  with  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  while  boats 
carried  arms,  ammunition,  seeds,  and  tools.  He  and  forty  com- 
panions followed  down  the  river  to  the  site  of  the  colony.  This 
well-organized  enterprise  was  successful  in  the  permanent  es- 
tablishment of  Buenos  Ayres. 

Until  1617  Buenos  Ayres  and  Asuncion  were  under  the  same 
government,  and  both  a part  of  the  vice-royalty  of  Peru. 
Following  the  death  of  Garay  conditions  in  the  valley  of  the 


iards  and  Creoles  of  the  region,  and  live-stock  products  became 


The  Founding  of 
Buenos  Ayres 


persistence  of  the  Spanish  conquistadores. 
De  Vaca’s  attempt  was  likewise  a failure. 
Zarata,  the  third  adelantado,  made  another 


La  Plata  were  unsettled.  The  people  were 
more  independent  than  elsewhere  in  Spanish 
America  and  insisted  on  having  a part  in  the 


selection  of  their  rulers.  In  1591  the  colonists  elected  Arias  de 


82 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Saavedra,  a native  of  Asuncion,  as  their  ruler,  and  his  election 
was  confirmed  by  the  crown.  Four  times  did  Saavedra  serve 
as  governor  of  the  province,  his  last  term  being  from  1615  to 
1618. 

By  1617  Buenos  Ayres  had  become  a town  of  some  three 
thousand  people,  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Parana  as  far  as 
Santa  Fe  was  covered  with  vast  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  be- 
longing to  the  Creoles.  Other  cities  also  were  springing  up. 

In  this  year  (1617)  the  province  was  divided 
rse^fprofmce  and  Buenos  Ayres  became  separate  from 
Asuncion  or  Paraguay.  The  new  province 
included  the  present  Argentina  provinces  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
Santa  Fe,  Entre  Rios,  and  Corrientes,  as  well  as  the  present 
republic  of  Uruguay.  The  first  governor  of  this  new  territory 
was  Diego  de  Gongora,  while  the  first  separate  governor  of 
Paraguay  was  Manuel  de  Frias. 

Before  the  division  of  the  province  Jesuit  missionaries  had 
gained  a foothold  in  Paraguay.  Their  influence  greatly  in- 
creased until  they  had  established  a veritable  theocracy  over 
certain  of  the  Indian  tribes.  They  first  entered  the  country  in 
1586  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  Christianity  to  the  Indians 
and  established  a school  in  Asuncion.  They  later  pushed  out 
into  the  remoter  parts  of  the  country.  The  natives  were  treated 
with  great  kindness.  The  Jesuits  learned  the  Indian  tongue 
and  taught  the  Indians  the  rudiments  of  religion.  Their  suc- 
cess was  phenomenal,  and  it  was  not  long 
until  they  had  gathered  large  numbers  of 
Indians  into  settled  communities  and  were 
teaching  them  agriculture  and  other  civilized  arts.  The  na- 
tives were  taught  to  build  comfortable  houses;  warehouses 
were  constructed  to  care  for  the  crops,  while  the  native  women 
were  instructed  in  the  arts  of  weaving  and  spinning.  In  1608 
Philip  III  gave  his  royal  sanction  to  the  Jesuit  work  along  the 
upper  Parana.  In  1614  there  were  one  hundred  and  nineteen 
Jesuits  at  work  in  this  region,  and  from  this  date  to  1769,  when 
the  king  of  Spain  banished  them  from  all  of  his  dominions,  the 
Jesuits  controlled  the  Indians  of  Paraguay  and  adjoining  ter- 
ritory. 


The  Jesuits  in 
Paraguay 


THE  AGRICULTURAL  COLONIES 


83 


READING  REFERENCES 

The  best  account  of  the  founding  of  Venezuela  and  New  Granada  and 
colonies  along  the  Rio  de  La  Plata  is  The  Establishment  of  Spanish  Rule 
in  America,  by  Bernard  Moses  (G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  1898),  Chapters 
VII  and  VIII.  Chapter  IX  of  the  same  volume  is  devoted  to  a discussion 
of  the  Jesuit  missions  in  Paraguay. 

A good  general  account  is  History  of  South  America,  by  Thomas  C. 
Dawson  (G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  1903-1904),  Vol.  I. 

For  the  founding  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
South  America,  by  G.  R.  Watson  (London,  1884),  Vol.  II;  also  History  of 
European  Colonies,  by  E.  J.  Payne  (New  York,  1889).  Chapter  VII. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  PORTUGUESE  COLONIZATION  OF  BRAZIL 

In  February,  1500,  Vincente  Pinzon,  one  of  the  companions 
of  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage,  saw  land  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Cape  Saint  Roque.  It  is  also  probable  that  Ojeda  and  Ves- 
pucci, six  months  before,  saw  the  coast  of  Brazil  at  about  the 
same  place.  The  real  discovery  of  Brazil,  however,  was  the 
work  of  the  Portuguese  navigator  Cabral.  This  Portuguese 
nobleman  sailed  from  Lisbon  in  March,  1500, 
ZET+'SE'  on  a v°ya§e  to  India>  continuing  the  work  of 
Da  Gama.  It  is  said  that  Da  Gama  wrote 
the  sailing  instructions  for  the  voyage,  which  gave  direction  to 
bear  eastward  after  passing  the  thirty-fourth  degree  south  lati- 
tude. Whether  by  accident  or  not,  Cabral  in  May,  1500, 
sighted  land  in  what  is  now  the  southern  part  of  the  present 
state  of  Bahia.  After  landing  and  erecting  a large  stone  cross, 
Cabral  took  possession  of  the  country  for  his  king  and  then  con- 
tinued his  voyage  around  Africa,  to  India. 

The  news  of  this  discovery  reached  Portugal  in  the  fall  of 
1500,  and  a small  fleet  was  at  once  dispatched  to  ascertain  the 
extent  and  condition  of  the  land  discovered.  They  hoped  to 
find  a highly  developed  civilization,  but  the  natives  they  saw 
were  but  savages  and  gave  little  promise  of  a highly  developed 
state  of  culture.  This  expedition  was  under  the  command  of 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  now  in  Portugal’s  employ. 
Brazil CC* S V°yage  to  He  coasted  southward  along  the  east  coast, 
naming  rivers  and  bays  as  he  went.  Thus  he 
reached  the  Rio  San  Francisco  on  Saint  Francis  Day  and  gave 
the  river  the  name  of  the  saint;  on  New  Year’s  day,  1501,  he 
sailed  into  the  harbor  of  the  present  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  named  the  harbor  the  River  of  January.  For  two  thousand 
miles  he  sailed  along  the  coast  looking  for  gold,  silver,  and 
spices,  but  the  only  thing  of  value  found  was  Brazil  wood,  and 

84 


PORTUGUESE  COLONIZATION  OF  BRAZIL  85 


it  was  not  long  until  the  country  which  produced  this  product 
in  such  abundance  became  known  as  Brazil. 

Portugal  was  slow  to  colonize  the  new  country  which  had 
come  into  her  possession  so  unexpectedly.  An  occasional  Por- 
tuguese ship  sailed  along  the  coast,  gathering  dye  wood,  and 
the  coast  came  to  be  well  known  to  navigators.  Ships  from 
other  countries,  especially  those  of  France,  came  more  and 
more  frequently,  and  although  Spain  never  seriously  disputed 
the  claim  of  Portugal,  yet  it  became  increasingly  evident  that 
Portugal  must  establish  permanent  colonies  if  she  hoped  to 
retain  the  territory.  The  colonists  to  be  sent 
New^und  coasts*6  over  were  criminals  set  on  shore  by  the  ships 
bound  for  India.  One  of  this  class  was  Diego 
Alverez,  landed  in  1509  near  the  present  site  of  Bahia.  He 
made  terms  with  the  savages  and  finally  married  a daughter  of 
a chief  and  raised  a numerous  half-breed  family.  Another  such 
was  Joao  Ramalho,  who  did  much  the  same  as  Alverez  near  San- 
tos. In  succeeding  years  other  such  characters  were  landed,  one 
of  whom,  collecting  an  army  of  Indians,  went  on  a gold-hunting 
expedition,  penetrated  the  coast  range,  and  entered  territory 
tributary  to  the  Incas,  several  years  before  the  Pizarro  conquest. 

The  first  regular  colonizing  attempt  was  organized  in  1530, 
when  five  ships  and  several  hundred  colonists,  under  command 
of  Matin  de  Sousa,  set  sail  for  Brazil.  They  reached  the  coast 
near  Pernambuco  in  the  early  part  of  1531.  A colony  was 
planted  on  a little  island,  Sao  Vicente,  near  the  present  port  of 
Santos,  where  they  were  welcomed  by  Ramalho  and  his  half- 
breed  family.  Fol loving  the  establishment  of  this  first  regular 
colony,  a number  of  others  were  undertaken 
coiwSf  Brazil  in  9uick  succession.  It  was  decided  by  the 
Portuguese  crown  to  divide  up  the  whole 
coast  into  feudal  grants,  fifty  leagues  in  length,  with  no  limits 
in  the  interior.  These  were  given  to  Portuguese  noblemen 
with  absolute  power  over  the  natives.  This  system  had  already 
been  adopted  in  the  Madeira  and  Azores,  and  was  very  nat- 
urally adopted  for  Brazil.  Twelve  of  these  grants  were  marked 
out,  though  only  upon  six  were  permanent  colonies  planted. 

Brazil  was  the  first  colony  in  America  to  be  established  upon 


86 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


an  agricultural  basis.  While  the  colonists  upon  the  islands  were 
practicing  agriculture  to  some  extent,  yet  up  to  this  time  the 
precious  metals  were  the  all-absorbing  attraction  everywhere  in 
the  Spanish  colonies.  The  basis  for  successful  Brazilian  col- 
onization was  the  sugar  industry.  Sugar  cane  was  brought  from 
Brazil,  the  First  the  Madeira  Islands  as  early  as  1526;  the  in- 

Agricuiturai  Colony  dustry  prospered  from  the  start,  and  it  was 

not  many  years  until  Brazil  became  the  chief 
source  of  the  world’s  supply.  Although  Portuguese  law  forbade 
the  enslavement  of  the  Indians,  the  colonists  paid  little  heed  to 
this  prohibition,  and  the  savages  were  enslaved  in  great  num- 
bers. The  native  Brazilians,  however,  were  not  so  easily  in- 
duced to  labor  as  were  the  natives  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  and  the 
importation  of  Negroes  from  the  Guinea  coast  became  a com- 
mon practice.  As  a result  the  Negro  population  of  Brazil  soon 
grew  to  be  the  most  numerous  in  South  America. 

Another  interesting  contrast  between  the  Portuguese  col- 
onies in  America  and  those  of  Spain  is  that  the  Portuguese 
came  to  South  America  with  their  families,  which  was  true  of 
Portuguese  Colonists  a11  classes.  The  Spaniard,  especially  the  chief 
Bring  out  Their  among  them,  came  out  alone,  and  often  re- 
Famiiies  to  Brazu  turned  after  a period  of  office-holding.  The 

Portuguese  colonist  sold  out  his  possessions  at  home  and 
brought  his  household  with  him  to  America.  Brazil  early  be- 
came a plantation  colony,  and  the  products  of  the  east,  familiar 
to  the  Portuguese,  were  early  transplanted  to  the  Brazilian 
plantations. 

By  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  whole  coast  line 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  to  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata 
was  studded  at  intervals  with  Portuguese  settlements,  in  all 
of  which  Portuguese  law  and  justice  were  administered.  In 
1549  the  king  of  Portugal  took  a new  step  in  his  American 
colonies.  He  revoked  the  grants  which  had  been  made  to  cer- 
tain noblemen  in  order  to  concentrate  the  government  in  the 
The  Government  of  hands  of  a central  power.  Thomas  de  Sousa 

Brazil  centralized,  was  the  first  governor-general.  He  sailed  for 

1549  Brazil  in  April,  1549,  with  six  vessels,  on 

board  of  which  were  three  hundred  and  twenty  officials,  three 


PORTUGUESE  COLONIZATION  OF  BRAZIL  87 


hundred  convict  colonists,  and  six  Jesuits.  The  instructions 
were  to  build  a strong  city  at  Bahia,  where  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  to  be  established.  Within  a few  months  a town  of 
over  two  hundred  houses  had  been  built  and  fortifications 
erected.  The  town  received  the  name  of  Sao  Salvador,  which 
soon  became  the  recognized  center  of  Portuguese  interests  in 
America. 

The  Jesuits  brought  over  by  De  Sousa  began  at  once  to  work 
among  the  Indians.  These  heroic  priests  went  out  alone  among 
the  Indian  tribes,  lived  with  them,  learned  their  language,  and 
exhorted  them  to  abandon  cannibalism  and  polygamy.  Every- 
. m . where  they  were  successful  with  the  Indians, 

Jesuit  Work  in  Brazil 

though  they  experienced  great  difficulty  among 
the  Portuguese,  many  of  whom  were  leading  scandalous  lives. 
The  Jesuits  opposed  the  enslavement  of  the  Indians,  and  their 
villages  of  converted  Indians  served  as  refuges  for  slaves  fleeing 
from  the  plantations.  Especially  was  this  true  in  Sao  Paulo, 
where  plantation  owners  came  in  constant  conflict  with  the 
Jesuits.  In  1552  the  first  bishop  for  Brazil  was  appointed, 
which  greatly  aided  the  work  of  the  church  in  the  colony. 

In  1558  the  French,  who  had  all  along  been  interested  in  the 
Brazilian  coast,  founded  a numerous  colony  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
composed  mostly  of  Huguenots.  It  was  Admiral  Cologny  who 
The  French  in  Brazil;  conceived  the  idea  of  establishing  a refuge 
the  Founding  of  Rio  for  his  persecuted  countrymen  in  America, 
de  Janeiro,  1558  An  adventurer,  Nicolas  Villegagnon,  was  se- 
lected to  lead  the  colonists  out  to  America.  He  proved  a traitor 
and  badly  mistreated  the  colonists,  many  of  whom  returned  to 
France.  Finally,  Villegaignon  himself,  finding  his  force  dimin- 
ished, was  compelled  to  return.  During  his  absence  the  Portu- 
guese seized  the  colony  and  in  1567  succeeded  in  firmly  estab- 
lishing their  authority. 

The  governor  under  whom  the  French  were  expelled  was 
Mem  da  Sa,  a very  able  and  experienced  administrator.  He 
came  to  Brazil  in  1558  and  continued  to  administer  the  colony 
until  his  death  in  1572.  The  colony  experienced  great  pros- 
perity during  these  years,  and  most  of  the  settlements  grew 
rapidly.  At  his  death  there  were  about  sixty  thousand  civilized 


88 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Brazil  in  the 
Sixteenth  Century 


people  in  the  colony,  about  twenty  thousand  of  whom  were 
white.  By  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the  population  lived 
in  the  northern  part  of  Brazil,  in  the  vicinity  of  Pernambuco 
and  Bahia,  while  smaller  settlements  were 
scattered  along  the  coast  southward.  Most 
of  these  settlements  were  primarily  engaged 
in  the  sugar  industry,  the  average  plantation  producing  forty- 
five  to  fifty  tons  of  sugar  annually.  The  Brazilian  plantations 
were  large  and  there  was  little  selling  of  land.  Land  was  free 
and  nontaxable,  and  the  owner  could  hold  great  tracts  without 
cultivation.  The  rural  population  was  greatly  scattered,  there 
being  practically  no  small  farmers.  The  sugar  planters  lived 
lavishly  and  spent  great  sums  on  social  entertainment,  and 
rich  silks  and  velvets  were  commonly  seen  among  them.  Many 
sugar  planters  commanded  incomes  of  ten  thousand  dollars  and 
upward,  and  extravagance  and  abundance  went  hand  in  hand. 

Following  the  death  of  the  king  of  Portugal  in  1580,  and 
many  of  the  Portuguese  noblemen  in  a battle  against  the  Moors 
in  Africa,  Philip  II  of  Spain  succeeded  in  establishing  himself 
upon  the  Portuguese  throne.  For  sixty  years  the  crowns  of 
Portugal  and  Spain  were  united.  During  these  years  Brazil 
suffered  more  or  less  neglect,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
generally  believed  that  Spain’s  colonies  were  superior  in  wealth 
The  Period  of  Spanish  to  those  of  Portugal.  The  internal  manage- 
ment of  Brazil,  however,  went  on  much  as 
before,  and  the  Portuguese  continued  to  hold 
the  monopoly  of  Brazilian  commerce.  In  this  period  in  Brazil- 
ian history  the  Dutch,  English,  and  French  were  active  in 
their  attacks  upon  the  Brazilian  coast.  During  these  years 
the  Dutch  were  carrying  on  their  heroic  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence, while  England  and  Spain  were  also  at  war.  Brazil, 
now  a Spanish  possession,  was  therefore  a legitimate  place  of 
attack.  The  French  also  renewed  their  efforts  to  regain  a foot- 
hold on  the  coast,  and  in  1612  a French  Protestant  colony  was 
planted  on  the  island  of  Maranhao.  In  1616,  however,  the 
Portuguese  drove  the  French  away  and  took  possession  of  their 
colony. 

Of  far  more  lasting  importance  than  the  attempts  of  the 


Rule  in  Brazil — 
1580-1640 


PORTUGUESE  COLONIZATION  OF  BRAZIL  89 


French  to  gain  a foothold  were  the  activities  of  the  Dutch.  The 
Dutch  had  gained  their  independence  by  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  the  early  years  of  Dutch  independence  are 
among  the  greatest  in  her  history.  The  Dutch  were  active  on 
the  sea,  in  commerce,  and  trade.  Dutch  ships  were  frequenting 
every  sea,  and  Dutch  ambition  was  reaching 
Seventeenth  Century  out  and  grasping  after  markets  and  colonies. 

In  1595  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  was 
formed,  and  her  trade  with  the  East  Indies  was  the  most  exten- 
sive in  Europe.  While  this  Dutch  company  was  engaged  in 
laying  a foundation  for  a colonial  empire  in  the  east,  another 
Dutch  company,  the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  was  in- 
corporated. The  object  of  this  new  company  (organized  1621) 
was  not  alone  to  establish  legitimate  trade  relations  in  the  New 
World,  but  also  to  plunder  the  treasure  fleets  of  her  arch  enemy, 
Spain.  In  fact,  this  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  chief  object. 

In  1624  a great  Dutch  fleet  attacked  the  Brazilian  capital 
and  captured  the  town,  the  governor  himself  becoming  a pris- 
oner. For  two  years  they  held  Bahia,  when  Spain  sent  forty 
ships  and  eight  thousand  soldiers,  and  the  Dutch  surrendered. 
The  Dutch  continued  to  harass  the  fleets  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, and  in  thirteen  years  captured  over  five 

The  Dutch  Establish  f ’ , . 

Themselves  Upon  the  hundred  ships,  and  booty  amounting  to  $40,- 
000,000.  In  1630  the  Dutch  captured  Per- 
nambuco and  all  efforts  of  the  Spanish 
government  to  take  the  town  were  unavailing,  and  by  1636 
the  Dutch  were  firmly  established  along  the  San  Francisco 
River.  When  Portugal  regained  her  independence  from  Spain 
an  impulse  toward  national  feeling  was  created  among  the 
Portuguese  living  under  Dutch  rule  in  Brazil.  In  1544  a rebel- 
lion was  organized  against  the  Dutch,  culminating  in  1655, 
when  the  Dutch  were  compelled  to  surrender  Pernambuco. 
With  this  event  the  power  of  the  Dutch  in  Brazil  came  to  an 
end. 

By  this  time  the  Portuguese  began  to  appreciate  the  im- 
portance of  Brazil,  and  King  John  IV  conferred  upon  his  heir 
the  title  of  “Prince  of  Brazil.”  Following  the  war  with  the 
Dutch  the  Portuguese  government  was  unable  to  enforce  the  ex- 


90 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


elusive  commercial  policy,  so  dear  to  both  Portugal  and  Spain, 
for  treaties  with  England  and  Holland  had  been  made,  allowing 
them  trade  privileges.  As  a result  of  this  more  liberal  policy 
Brazil  experienced  a great  wave  of  prosperity.  Population 
rapidly  increased,  new  towns  sprang  up,  and 
Brazil  During  the  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  Brazil 
seventeenth  Century  contained  a population  of  seven  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand.  The  old  restrictive  policy, 
however,  was  soon  restored,  and  monopolies  were  granted  to 
certain  commercial  companies.  The  Jesuits  also  became  more 
active,  and  established  missions  along  the  valley  of  the  Amazon. 
This  activity  served  to  arouse  the  resentment  of  the  Brazilians, 
wrho  did  not  object  to  their  activity  along  the  Amazon,  but  did 
resent  their  encroachment  in  the  more  populous  districts.  In 
1684  a rebellion  broke  out  against  the  Jesuits,  which  proved  so 
serious  that  Portuguese  officials  became  more  careful  in  grant- 
ing favors  to  the  order. 

In  the  later  seventeenth  century  gold  was  discovered  in 
Brazil.  For  some  years  there  had  been  rumors  that  the  Jesuits 
were  secretly  working  gold  mines  with  Indian  labor  along  the 
Rio  San  Francisco.  In  1693  large  native  nuggets  of  gold  were 
found  in  Sao  Paulo  and  this  news  caused  great  excitement  and 
a rush  began  toward  the  interior,  which  threatened  to  depopu- 
late the  settlements  along  the  coast.  Even  Portugal  sent  out 
„ , , gold-seekers  in  great  numbers.  The  prov- 

mce  of  Minas  Geraes  became  a great  gold- 
producing  center  and  within  fifty  years  produced  seven  million 
five  hundred  thousand  ounces.  The  coming  in  of  so  many 
outsiders  caused  resentment  on  the  part  of  the  Paulists  who 
had  first  discovered  the  gold,  and  quarrels  soon  arose  which 
resulted  in  anarchy  and  civil  war.  The  government  attempted 
to  put  mining  laws  into  force  and  collected  a tax  on  every 
slave  employed  in  the  mines.  Before  gold  could  be  exported 
it  had  to  receive  the  government  stamp  in  government  melting 
houses. 

Again  in  the  eighteenth  century  Brazil  was  troubled  by  in- 
vasion of  the  French.  Civil  wars  also  broke  out  in  Pernambuco, 
caused  by  the  corrupt  rule  of  the  royal  governors.  The  Brazil- 


PORTUGUESE  COLONIZATION  OF  BRAZIL  91 


Revolt  Against  Bad 
Role 


ian  sugar  planters  led  the  revolt  and  were  successful  in  over- 
throwing the  government.  A republic  was  even  proposed,  but 
when  a new  governor  came  out  the  insurgents 
laid  down  their  arms.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  Portugal  became  involved  in  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  as  allies  of  the  English  and 
Dutch,  and  in  1710  a French  expedition  landed  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  made  its  way  into  the  center  of  the  town,  only  to 
be  captured  a little  later  by  the  populace  led  by  the  Portuguese 
governor.  The  Portuguese  were  very  cruel  in  their  treatment 
of  the  French  prisoners,  most  of  them  being  killed.  This 
The  French  Capture  cruelty  did  not  long  remain  unavenged.  The 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  next  year  a large  French  fleet,  with  six  thou- 
sand troops  under  the  command  of  Admiral 
Tourin,  arrived  before  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  after  days  of  hard 
fighting  the  city  fell.  On  the  French  threatening  to  burn  the 
city  a ransom  of  six  hundred  and  ten  thousand  crusados  and 
five  hundred  cases  of  sugar  was  paid,  besides  provisions  for  the 
return  voyage. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  Portugal  suffered 
under  the  corrupt  rule  of  John  V,  one  of  the  most  dissipated  of 
kings.  Corruption  also  prevailed  in  Brazil.  Brazil  was  made 
to  contribute  to  the  revenues  of  the  mother  country,  and  taxes 
of  every  description  were  imposed  upon  products  and  people, 
corruption  in  the  All  trade  with  European  states  except  Portu- 
Govemments  of  gal  was  prohibited.  Monopolies  were  granted 

Portugal  and  Brazil  on  rum>  tobacco,  and  numerous  other  articles 

of  commerce.  Bribe-taking  was  common  among  officials,  the 
administration  of  justice  was  interfered  with  by  the  governors, 
who  looked  after  friends  and  favorites  at  the  expense  of  justice, 
while  every  other  known  form  of  corruption  everywhere  pre- 
vailed. 

The  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  a period  of  re- 
form. King  John  V died  in  1750  and  the  Marquis  of  Pombal 
completely  renovated  the  administration  of  both  Portugal  and 
Brazil.  One  of  the  causes  of  corruption  had  been  the  influence 
of  the  clergy  in  politics.  The  Jesuits  had  also  been  active  in 
resisting  reform.  The  Marquis  of  Pombal  sent  over  his  brother 


92 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Negro  Slaves  in 
Brazil 


as  captain-general  of  Maranhao  and  Para,  and  one  of  his  first 
The  Reforms  of  acts  was  to  deprive  the  Jesuits  of  temporal 
Pombai;  the  Expui-  power.  This  was  followed  in  1760  by  the 
1760  °f  ^ Jesmts’  expulsion  of  the  order  from  Brazil.  Their 

schools,  colleges,  and  churches  were  confiscated, 
and  the  Indians  whom  they  had  collected  into  villages  were  left 
without  leaders  or  teachers,  and  they  either  became  the  prey 
of  ruthless  settlers  or  reverted  to  their  savage  state.  Among 
the  reforms  of  Pombai  was  his  attempt  to  protect  the  Indians 
against  enslavement.  This  resulted  in  greatly  increasing  the 
number  of  Negro  slaves.  With  this  increased 
importation  of  Negroes  intermixture  with  the 
Negro  rapidly  followed,  and  it  became  com- 
mon for  young  Brazilians  to  have  Negro  mistresses.  The 
Dutch  had  been  slaveholders  during  their  occupation  of  Brazil- 
ian territory,  and  when  they  were  driven  out  the  Brazilians 
took  over  their  slaves.  This  led  to  an  increase  of  Negro  impor- 
tation, as  did  also  the  discovery  of  gold.  It  was  not  long  until 
Negro  labor  was  used  everywhere  and  the  Negro  became  the 
most  numerous  single  element  in  the  population.  By  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  twenty  thousand  slaves  were  im- 
ported annually  into  the  country  and  five  thousand  were  sold 
every  year  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  alone. 

As  Brazil  grew  in  wealth  and  population  the  revenues  ob- 
tained by  Portugal  from  her  great  colony  likewise  increased. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  between  1728  and  1734  the  annual 
sum  received  by  the  Portuguese  government  from  Brazil  was 
not  less  than  $10,000,000.  There  were  heavy  taxes  on  imports; 
iron  and  salt  were  taxed  a hundred  per  cent;  the  crown  received 
Brazil  at  the  close  the  royal  fifth  from  the  products  of  the  mines, 

of  the  Eighteenth  while  trade  restrictions  of  every  variety  ham- 

pered the  free  interchange  of  products.  In 
spite  of  these  absurd  restrictions  the  foreign  trade  of  Brazil  at 
the  close  of  the  colonial  period  amounted  to  some  $20,000,000 
annually  and  the  population  had  grown  to  over  2,000,000,  dis- 
tributed as  follows:  430,000  whites,  1,500,000  Negroes,  700,000 
Indians.  There  were  12  cities  and  66  towns.  Rio  de  Janeiro 
was  the  largest  city  with  a population  of  some  30,000.  Social 


PORTUGUESE  COLONIZATION  OF  BRAZIL  93 


life  was  of  the  most  degraded  kind,  and  even  wealthy  planters 
lived  in  filth  and  degradation.  The  church  was  corrupt,  while 
lazy  and  immoral  priests  swarmed  the  streets  of  the  cities  and 
towns. 

READING  REFERENCES 

Satisfactory  accounts  of  the  colonization  of  Brazil  may  be  found  in 
History  of  the  South  American  Republics , by  Thomas  C.  Dawson  (1906), 
Vol.  I,  pp.  287-400;  and  very  briefly  in  Brazil,  by  P.  Denis  Unwin, 
London,  1911). 

A brief  account  of  the  colonization  of  Brazil  may  also  be  found  in  the 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  I,  34-59;  IV,  703-759;  V,  675-780;  VI, 
chap.  12). 


CHAPTER  VIII 


COLONIAL  ADMINISTRATION 


The  colonial  government  instituted  by  Spain  for  her  Amer- 
ican colonies  was  in  many  respects  the  most  highly  developed 
system  of  colonial  control  ever  put  into  operation.  To  say, 
however,  that  it  was  highly  developed  does  not  necessarily 
Importance  of  the  imply  that  was  highly  successful.  On  the 
Spanish  Colonial  other  hand,  we  must  not  jump  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  was  a complete  failure.  Spain 
was  one  of  the  first  modem  nations  to  establish  a colonial  em- 
pire and  a definite  colonial  system.  For  three  hundred  years 
she  governed  one  of  the  most  widely  extended  empires  that  have 
ever  existed.  For  these  reasons  her  system  of  colonial  govern- 
ment deserves  our  respect  and  should  commend  our  study. 

To  get  the  best  understanding  of  Spain’s  colonial  system  it 
will  be  well  for  us  to  know  something  of  the  kind  of  institutions 
which  prevailed  in  Castile,  especially  at  the  time  the  colonies 
were  established.  Castile  had  been  instrumental  in  the  dis- 
Coioniai  Institutions  covery  and  colonization  of  the  Indies,  and 
Modeled  After  Those  the  government  devised  for  the  colonies  was 
of  Castile  modeled  closely  after  the  institutions  of  that 

realm.  At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America  the  government 
of  Castile  was  undergoing  a thorough  reorganization  at  the 
hands  of  the  Catholic  kings,  and  several  of  the  institutions, 
afterward  transferred  to  the  colonies,  were  in  the  formative 
stage. 

At  the  head  of  the  Castilian  realm  stood  the  sovereign,  in 
theory  supreme  and  absolute.  In  former  times  the  Cortes  had 
been  a check  upon  the  power  of  the  sovereign,  but  under  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  it  had  lost  much  of  its  authority.  Of  greatest 
importance  in  the  administration  of  the  gov- 
ernment were  the  councils.  There  came  to 
be  eight  of  these,  but  the  Council  of  Castile 
was  the  earliest  organized  and  remained  by  far  the  most  im- 

94 


The  Sovereigns  and 
the  Councils 


COLONIAL  ADMINISTRATION 


95 


portant.  Every  member  of  the  councils  was  appointed  directly 
by  the  sovereigns  and  could  be  dismissed  at  their  pleasure. 
“Through  them  the  sovereigns  carried  their  absolutism  into 
every  department  and  subdivision  of  the  conduct  of  the  gov- 
ernment.” When  the  time  came  to  organize  a government  for 
the  colonies  the  monarchs  simply  formed  another  council,  the 
Council  of  the  Indies,  which  was  modeled  after  the  Council  of 
Castile. 

Among  the  institutions  which  underwent  reorganization  at 
the  hands  of  the  Catholic  kings  were  the  tribunals  of  justice. 
At  first  there  was  but  one  royal  court,  known  as  the  royal 
audiencia,  but  later  other  courts  were  formed,  all  of  which  were 
called  audiencias.  Besides  being  courts  of  justice,  the  provin- 
. ..  . cial  audiencias  had  legislative  and  adminis- 

The  Audiencias  . . 

trative  functions,  though  in  their  administra- 
tive capacity  they  were  subject  to  instructions  from  the  king. 
They  also  decided  elections  and  confirmed  judges.  In  their 
judicial  capacity  the  audiencias  were  divided  into  a civil  and 
criminal  court,  each  of  which  was  presided  over  by  a judge. 
In  every  audiencia  there  was  an  officer  called  a fiscal,  who  was 
the  prosecutor,  and  also  certain  other  officials  corresponding 
somewhat  to  our  sheriff  and  constable. 

Before  the  time  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  the  government  of 
Spain  was  greatly  decentralized,  and  there  was  much  trouble  in 
collecting  the  taxes  and  enforcing  justice.  It  became  necessary 
to  introduce  certain  officials  whose  duty  it  was  to  look  after 
the  royal  interests  in  the  provinces  and  cities.  This  new  officer 
„ „ . was  the  corregidor.  In  1480  they  were  sent 

The  Corregidor  . 

for  the  first  time  to  all  Castilian  cities,  and 
from  that  time  this  institution  was  extended  over  the  entire 
realm.  The  corregidor  became  extremely  powerful  and  exer- 
cised military,  judicial,  financial,  and  executive  functions.  His 
duty  was  to  see  that  all  the  laws  of  the  kingdom  were  enforced 
and  that  the  king  was  not  defrauded  of  either  the  honor  or 
taxes  due  him.  The  district  over  which  he  presided  was  called 
a corregimiento.  The  corregidor  has  been  described  as  the 
“omnicompetent  servant  of  an  absolute  king.” 

In  connection  with  this  new  official,  the  corregidor,  there 


96 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Residencia 


developed  another  institution  known  as  the  residencia.  This 
was  an  enforced  residence  of  an  official,  for  several  months 
after  his  term  of  office  closed,  so  as  to  give  any  person  in  his 
district,  who  had  a grievance,  an  opportunity 
of  entering  suit  against  him.  The  corregidor 
was  subject  to  this  enforced  residence,  as  he  was  always  ap- 
pointed from  without  his  corregimiento.  The  corregidor,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  only  official  subject  to  this  regulation,  but  it 
was  later  extended  to  several  others.  The  purpose  of  the 
residencia  seems  to  have  been  two  fold — to  secure  the  highest 
possible  efficiency  among  officials  and  to  enable  the  crown  to 
gain  a further  hold  over  officials  who  represented  them  at  a 
distance. 

The  tendency  in  the  government  of  Spain  after  the  accession 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  was  toward  centralization.  Reforms 
increasing  the  royal  power  were  introduced  from  the  beginning 
Tendency  Toward  °f  the  reign  of  the  Catholic  kings.  The  mon- 
centraiization  in  the  archs,  however,  never  got  over  this  suspicion 

Spanish  Government  ^at  tbey  were  being  defrauded  by  the  pro- 

vincial and  district  officials,  and  for  this  reason  officers  were 
appointed  whose  duty  it  was  to  watch  other  officials.  One 
office  was  set  over  against  another,  and  powers,  duties,  and 
privileges  were  vaguely  defined. 

The  machinery  of  government,  already  developed  or  in  the 
process  of  development,  in  the  mother  country  was  transferred 
to  the  colonies.  The  difficulties  in  the  administration  of  col- 
onies so  vast,  and  so  far  away,  were  extremely  great.  The 
operation  of  the  laws  was  slow  and  cumbersome,  while  official 
“activities  on  either  side  of  the  ocean  were  only  too  often 
shackled  by  red  tape  and  routine,  or  else  smothered  under 
mountains  of  documents.” 

When  Pope  Alexander  VI  issued  the  papal  bull,  after  the 
first  voyage  of  Columbus,  he  conveyed  to  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella the  new  lands,  and  nothing  was  said  about  the  Spanish 
nation.  Thus  from  the  beginning  America  was  considered  the 
property  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns  and  the  administration  of 
the  affairs  of  the  colonies  was  carried  on  with  this  presumption. 
From  a strictly  legal  point  of  view,  Mexico,  Peru,  and  later 


COLONIAL  ADMINISTRATION 


97 


The  Council  of  the 
Indies 


the  other  states  of  equal  dignity,  appear  as  kingdoms  in  a per- 
sonal union  with  the  kingdom  of  Spain,  rather 

Position  of  the  ....  ..  1 

Spanish  Sovereigns  than  as  colonies  m the  ordinary  meaning  of 

in  the  Government  that  term.  “The  king  of  Spain  bore  much 

of  the  Colonies  . , 

the  same  relation  to  the  colomes  that  he  bore 
to  the  kingdom  of  Spain  itself.”  The  regular  governing  agen- 
cies in  Spain,  however,  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  government 
of  the  colonies.  New  and  special  agencies  were  created  to 
assist  the  king  in  the  governing  of  his  vast  colonial  kingdoms. 

First  in  rank  among  these  special  governing  agencies  for  the 
colonies  stands  the  Council  of  the  Indies.  Its  beginning  dates 
from  1493,  when  Juan  de  Fonseca  was  appointed  to  assist  the 
admiral  in  preparing  for  his  second  voyage.  In  affairs  pertain- 
ing to  the  Indies  this  council  was  supreme.  It  had  sole  right 
of  making  laws  for  the  Spanish  possessions;  it  was  a court  of 
last  resort  for  all  cases  pertaining  to  America;  while  it  advised 
the  king  on  all  questions  relating  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  American  affairs.  It  early  be- 
came the  custom  to  appoint  persons  as 
members  of  the  council  who  had  seen  service  either  in  America 
or  in  the  Philippines.  The  council  became  fully  organized  in 
1542.  Its  meeting  place  was  Seville.  One  of  its  duties  was  to 
collect  all  available  information  about  the  Indies;  another  was 
to  serve  as  a nominating  board  for  “all  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
officers  in  the  Indies.”  In  the  course  of  two  hundred  years  the 
legislation  of  this  body  was  collected  into  a body  of  law  known 
as  the  “Laws  of  the  Indies,”  which  dealt  with  every  duty  and 
right  of  officials  and  inhabitants. 

Besides  the  Council  of  the  Indies,  another  body  was 
created  to  superintend  the  economic  affairs  of  the  colonies. 
This  body  was  called  the  Casa  de  Contratacion,  or  Indian 
House,  and  was  organized  at  Seville  in  1503,  where  a house  was 
especially  built  for  its  use.  The  general  purpose  of  this  body 
was  to  give  the  king  a rigid  monopoly  of  all  colonial  trade.  It 
The  Casa  de  took  account  of  everything  pertaining  to  the 

Contratacion,  or  economic  affairs  of  the  Indies.  It  granted 

licenses  to  those  going  out  to  the  Indies;  it 
supervised  the  equipping  of  ships;  gave  direction  to  their  load- 


98 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


ing  and  unloading;  in  short,  its  officials  supervised  every  detail 
of  the  Indies  trade.  The  officers  of  the  Indian  House  were  a 
president,  treasurer,  secretary,  agent,  three  judges,  and  an  at- 
torney. Their  duties  were  prescribed  to  the  last  detail  and 
they  were  hedged  about  with  all  manner  of  restrictions.  We 
will  have  occasion  to  describe  the  Indian  House  more  fully  in  a 
future  chapter. 

During  the  process  of  settlement  and  exploration  the  chief 
governmental  authority  in  America  rested  in  the  hands  of  a 
military  governor,  called  the  adelantado.  In  Spain  this  title 
The  Earliest  Colonial  was  Siven  the  military  governor  of  a border 
official;  the  province.  Columbus  was  given  this  title,  as 

well  as  most  of  the  other  founders  of  colonies 
in  America.  After  the  period  of  settlement  was  passed  the 
authority  in  the  colony  passed  usually  to  the  audiencia,  which 
often  performed  all  the  functions  of  government. 

When  fully  organized,  the  heads  of  the  governments  in  Amer- 
ica were  the  viceroys.  In  1574  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
America  were  described  as  consisting  of  two  kingdoms:  New 
Spain,  which  included  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  Is- 
lands; and  Peru,  which  included  all  Spanish  territory  in  South 
America.  These  two  kingdoms  were  ruled  over  by  two  vice- 
roys, who  were  the  personal  representatives 
of  the  king,  and  performed  all  the  royal 
functions,  as  though  the  king  were  present 
and  reigning  in  person.  The  viceroy  kept  a court  modeled  after 
that  of  Spain;  he  exercised  power  of  pardon;  presided  over  the 
audiencia,  which  acted  as  his  council;  kept  a record  of  the 
distribution  of  the  Indians,  and  acted  as  judge  in  cases  where 
they  were  involved.  His  power  was  checked  by  the  audiencia, 
which  in  cases  of  dispute  could  refer  matters  to  the  Council  of 
the  Indies.  The  viceroy  of  Peru  was  considered  the  most  im- 
portant, and  it  became  common  for  the  Mexican  viceroy  to 
be  promoted  to  the  Peruvian  viceroyalty. 

The  colonial  official  ranking  next  to  the  viceroy  was  the 
captain-general.  The  functions  of  the  cap- 
tain-general were  similar  to  those  of  the  vice- 
roy, except  that  he  ruled  over  a smaller  territory.  Thus 


The  Viceroy  and  His 
Functions 


The  Captain-General 


COLONIAL  ADMINISTRATION 


99 


Chile  became  a captaincy-general  in  1778,  and  was  practically 
independent  of  Peru,  though  nominally  it  was  still  a part 
of  the  viceroyalty.  Venezuela  was  created  a captaincy-general 
in  1773  and  later  Cuba  and  Guatemala. 

The  governor  of  the  province,  the  corregidor,  came  next. 
The  province  in  turn  was  divided  into  partidos,  at  the  head  of 
which  were  officials  called  alcalde  mayors,  who  exercised 
police,  military,  and  judicial  functions.  In 
theCokmies1™6111  m the  colonial  towns,  both  Spanish  and  Indian, 
there  was  a considerable  degree  of  self- 
government,  following  the  example  set  by  towns  and  cities  in 
Spain.  The  municipal  councils,  or  the  cabildos,  generally  con- 
sisted of  six  regidores,  or  aldermen,  and  two  alcaldes,  or  jus- 
tices. In  many  cases  the  regidores  and  the  alcaldes  were 
elected  by  the  citizens  of  the  towns,  though  in  the  course  of 
time  these  offices  became  hereditary  or  were  sold  to  the  highest 
bidder. 

Besides  the  divisions  into  viceroyalties,  captaincy-generals, 
provinces,  and  districts,  the  colonies  were  divided  into  audien- 
cias.  In  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century  there  came  to 
be  eleven  of  these  in  America.  “Strictly  speaking,  an  audien- 
cia  was  a body  of  magistrates,  constituting  at  once  a supreme 
court  and  a board  of  administration  for  the  province;  but  the 
designation  was  applied  equally  to  the  area  over  which  its 
jurisdiction  extended.”  If  the  audiencia  had 
as  its  presiding  officer  a “governor  and  cap- 
tain-general,” the  area  over  which  it  had 
authority  bore  the  name  “captaincy-general”  or  “presidency” 
as  well  as  “audiencia.”  If,  however,  the  audiencia  “was  pre- 
sided over  by  a jurist,  the  area  was  then  termed  a ‘presidency’ 
in  a narrower  sense.”  The  number  belonging  to  an  audiencia 
depended  upon  its  position  and  importance.  The  Audiencia  of 
Mexico  consisted  of  four  oidores,  or  civil  judges;  four  alcaldes 
de  crimen,  or  criminal  judges;  and  two  prosecuting  attorneys. 
The  audiencias  acted  as  councils  for  the  viceroys  and  captain- 
generals,  and  during  an  interregnum  assumed  all  the  functions 
of  executive  administration. 

In  1786  still  another  administrative  division  was  made  in 


The  Colonial 
Audiencias 


100 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Intendencies  and  the 
Intendent 


The  Residencia 


the  Spanish  colonies  known  as  intendencies.  At  the  head  of 
each  was  an  intendent.  He  directly  represented  the  crown 
in  the  financial  administration,  his  chief 
business  being  to  see  that  the  king  got  all 
that  was  due  him  from  the  colonies.  He  was 
given  a large  degree  of  independence  in  the  management  of 
his  office.  Intendencies  were  created  because  of  the  corruption 
of  the  corregidors,  and  it  was  expected  that  the  intendent 
would  bring  about  reform  in  the  administration. 

The  Spanish  institution  known  as  the  residencia  was  likewise 
introduced  into  the  colonies.  As  a colonial  institution  it  pro- 
vided that  all  administrative  officials  should  remain  in  the 
colony  a certain  period  after  their  terms  of 
office  were  over,  in  order  to  give  all  those 
who  had  grievances  against  them  a chance  to  bring  charges. 
A special  court  was  set  up,  consisting  of  one  or  more  commis- 
sioners, who  heard  all  complaints  and  forwarded  them  to  the 
Council  of  the  Indies,  where  a decision  was  made. 

Portugal  never  developed  a colonial  system  comparable  to 
that  of  Spain.  Several  councils  in  Lisbon  had  to  do  with  colo- 
nial affairs,  though  the  Council  of  State  exercised  the  most 
authority,  appointing  the  officers  of  high  rank  for  the  colonies. 

At  first  Brazil  was  divided  into  feudal  divi- 
Adm^nistration10nial  sions  called  captaincies,  in  which  the  pro- 
prietor exercised  complete  authority.  In 
1548  a captain-general  was  appointed  who  brought  the  prov- 
inces under  his  authority.  In  1763  a viceroy  was  appointed 
for  Brazil,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  made  the  seat  of  his  gov- 
ernment. Under  him  were  the  several  captains-general,  al- 
though they  manifested  a considerable  independence,  and  did 
not  hesitate  to  oppose  undue  interference  from  the  central 
authority  in  local  affairs. 


READING  REFERENCES 

Most  serviceable  accounts  of  the  Spanish  Administrative  system  will 
be  found  in  Establishment  of  Spanish  Rule  in  America,  by  Bernard  Moses 
(G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  1898),  Chapters  II  and  IV ; and  in  Spain  in  Amer- 
ica, by  E.  G.  Bourne  (Harpers,  1906),  Chapter  XV. 


COLONIAL  ADMINISTRATION 


101 


A brief  but  clear  account  will  be  found  in  Latin  America,  by  W.  R. 
Shepherd  (Henry  Holt  & Co.,  1914),  Chapter  II. 

For  the  institutional  background  of  the  Spanish  colonies,  The  Rise  of 
the  Spanish  Empire,  by  R.  B.  Merriman  (The  Macmillan  Company,  1918), 
will  be  found  especially  valuable,  particularly  Vol.  II,  Chapter  XV. 

For  the  student  who  reads  Spanish  the  Recopiladdn  de  Leyes  de  los 
Reynos  de  las  Indias  (The  Collection  of  Spanish  Colonial  Law),  1844,  may 
be  studied  with  profit. 


CHAPTER  IX 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS  IN  COLONIAL  LATIN 
AMERICA 

I.  The  Trade  System 

The  Spanish  colonists  not  only  brought  with  them  their  reli- 
gion and  forms  of  government,  but  also  their  economic  ideas 
and  practices.  And  yet  the  economic  ideas  entertained  by 
Spain  in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries 
were  much  like  those  held  by  other  European  peoples.  The 
chief  difference  between  Spain  and  England,  in  their  economic 
Spain’s  Economic  dealings  with  their  colonies,  was  that  Spain 
Program  in  Respect  was  able  to  carry  out  her  economic  program 
to  Her  Coiomes  and  enforced  her  restrictive  trade  laws,  while 

England  passed  similar  laws  but  was  entirely  unable  to  enforce 
them.  As  far  as  intention  was  concerned,  England  was  little 
different  from  Spain.  As  Bancroft  says,  “the  mercantile  re- 
strictive system  was  the  superstition  of  the  age,”  and  was  held, 
not  alone  by  Spain  and  Portugal,  but  also  by  the  other  col- 
onizing nations  of  western  Europe.  The  colonies  were  con- 
sidered to  exist  for  the  benefit  of  the  mother  country,  and  no 
nation  was  more  successful  in  carrying  out  this  mistaken  idea 
than  Spain. 

In  the  year  1503  there  was  organized  in  Seville  what  was 
known  as  the  Casa  de  Contratacion,  or  Indian  House.  The 
purpose  of  this  organization  has  already  been  explained.  When 
the  Indian  House  was  established  it  was  provided  that  all  trade 
of  the  Indies  was  to  be  confined  to  the  one  Spanish  port  of 
Seville.  That  city  maintained  the  monopoly  of  trade  with 
little  interruption  down  to  1717,  when  it  was 
removed  to  Cadiz,  because  ships  no  longer 
could  make  their  way  up  the  Guadalquivir.  In  the  early 
years,  before  the  gold  and  silver  of  Peru  and  Mexico  came  to 
be  an  important  part  of  the  returning  cargoes,  ships  sailed  for 

102 


The  Indian  House 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


103 


Practiced  in  the 
Spanish  Colonies 


the  Indies  singly.  The  development  of  piracy,  however,  soon 
caused  the  Indian  House  to  decree  that  henceforth  ships  must 
sail  in  fleets.  The  fleet  system  was  officially  established  in 
1561.  Down  to  1748  two  fleets  went  annually,  one  bound  for 
Vera  Cruz  in  New  Spain,  the  other  to  Porto  Bello  on  the 
isthmus. 

When  the  fleets  arrived  at  their  American  destination  there 
was  inaugurated  at  each  place  a great  fair,  for  the  sale  and 
distribution  of  the  goods  brought  over.  The  Porto  Bello  fair 
was  the  largest  and  most  important,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
the  distributing  center  for  all  the  Peruvian  trade.  On  the 
arrival  of  the  Porto  Bello  fleet  those  who  desired  to  purchase 
assembled  from  all  the  colonies  in  South  America.  Ordinarily, 
the  town  was  small  and  extremely  unhealthy,  and  during  the 
forty  days  of  the  fair  it  was  crowded  far  beyond  its  capacity. 
The  Fair  System  as  Rooms  for  living  rented  at  $125  for  the  fair, 
while  display  rooms  for  goods  commanded  the 
exorbitant  rent  of  from  $1,000  to  $5,000. 
Food  was  correspondingly  dear,  and  due  to  the  miserable  sani- 
tary conditions  and  overcrowding,  the  death  rate  was  extremely 
high.  Similar  conditions  prevailed  at  Vera  Cruz,  where  in 
1556  four  members  of  an  English  merchant’s  family  of  eight 
died  in  ten  days.  Porto  Bello  was  described  during  fair  time 
by  one  who  saw  the  conditions,  as  an  “open  grave.”  This 
system  of  distribution  raised  the  price  of  goods  to  a tremendous 
figure.  Goods  intended  for  Peru  after  they  were  purchased  at 
Porto  Bello  were  loaded  on  backs  of  mules  and  taken  across  the 
isthmus.  They  were  then  reloaded  upon  vessels  bound  down 
the  coast,  and  after  months  of  toil  and  danger  finally  reached 
their  destination,  where  they  sold  for  from  five  to  six  hundred 
per  cent  above  their  original  cost. 

For  a long  time  the  Indian  House  was  the  efficient  agent  in 
carrying  out  this  rigid  system  of  commercial  control.  By  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  however,  changes  were 
taking  place  which  rendered  it  more  and  more  difficult  for 
Spain  to  maintain  this  strict  monopoly.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  England  obtained  the  contract  to  furnish  slaves 
to  the  Spanish  colonies,  and  at  the  same  time  she  obtained  the 


104 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


privilege  of  sending  one  ship,  of  five  hundred  tons  burden,  a 
year  to  trade  at  Porto  Bello.  England  took  full  advantage 
„ , . ^ , of  this  rift  in  the  Spanish  trade  monopoly 

Breaking  Down  of  m r 

the  Spanish  Trade  and  before  long  was  unloading  whole  fleets 
Monopoly;  over  the  deck  of  this  one  ship.  All  trade 

Contraband  Trade  . . 

with  the  southern  part  of  the  continent 
under  this  system  was  compelled  to  pass  through  Porto  Bello 
and  Peru.  This  was,  of  course,  greatly  to  the  disadvantage  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  By  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
however,  Buenos  Ayres  was  becoming  a great  contraband  port. 
It  was  not,  indeed,  until  that  city  became  a great  smuggling 
port  that  it  began  to  prosper  and  grow.  After  the  English  and 
Dutch  established  colonies  in  the  West  Indies,  smuggling  like- 
wise became  common  along  the  northern  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica. The  English  and  Dutch  colonists  served  as  centers  for  this 
trade.  In  1762  the  English  captured  Habana,  and  that  port 
was  opened  to  English  ships  and  the  great  possibility  of  free 
trade  was  at  once  shown.  Charles  III  of  Spain,  three  years 
later,  opened  up  the  trade  of  the  Indies  to  eight  Spanish  ports 
besides  Cadiz.  In  1778  commerce  with  the  Indies  was  de- 
clared free  to  all  Spanish  ports,  and  Buenos  Ayres,  Peru,  and 
Chile  were  allowed  to  trade  directly  with  Spain. 


II.  Agriculture  in  the  Colonies 
“The  principal  pursuits  of  Spanish  America  were  farming, 
grazing,  and  mining.  The  romance  of  the  conquest  and  of  the 
silver  fleets  did  much  to  give  disproportionate  prominence  to 
the  production  of  gold  and  silver  in  popular  accounts  of  Span- 
ish colonization.”  The  bulkier  agricultural  products  were  not 
raised  for  exportation,  while  the  products  of  the  mines  found 
their  way  to  Spain  in  vast  quantities.  For  this  reason  mining 
received  much  more  attention  in  books.  Yet  by  far  the  largest 
majority  of  people  in  Latin  America  lived  by  agricultural  pur- 
importance  oi  suits,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 

Agriculture  in  the  century  the  value  of  the  products  of  the  soil 
Spanish  Colonies  has  been  estimated  to  have  been  one  third 
greater  than  the  yield  of  the  mines.  When  the  Spaniards  con- 
quered Mexico  and  Peru  they  found  large  populations  living 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


105 


Early  Spanish 
Agriculture  in  America 


mostly  by  agricultural  pursuits.  The  Aztecs  cultivated  such 
products  as  the  banana,  cocoa,  vanilla  bean,  used  then,  as  now, 
for  flavoring,  Indian  com,  and  the  maguey,  from  which  the 
Aztecs  obtained  food,  drink,  clothing,  and  writing  material. 
The  Peruvians  were  also  an  agricultural  race  and  understood 
both  the  use  of  irrigation  and  fertilizer.  They  raised  potatoes, 
Indian  corn,  and  cotton. 

Cortes  recognized  the  importance  of  agriculture,  and  recom- 
mended that  the  crown  require  all  vessels  coming  to  America 
to  bring  over  a certain  quantity  of  seeds  and  plants.  Every 
grant  of  land  was  made  on  condition  that  the  proprietor  plant 
a specified  number  of  vines.  Other  regulations,  protecting  the 
agricultural  interests  of  the  country,  were  drawn  up  by  Cortes. 
Cortes  himself  gave  attention  to  agriculture  when  he  retired 
to  his  estates,  where  he  planted  sugar  cane,  flax,  and  hemp, 
built  a sugar  mill,  and  imported  merino  sheep  and  other  cattle. 

The  Spaniards  made  little  advance  over  the 
Aztecs  and  Peruvians  in  their  methods  of 
farming.  The  sharpened  stick,  the  wooden 
shovel,  the  copper  hoe,  and  sickle  of  the  Aztec  were  no  more 
primitive  than  the  rude  plow  brought  by  the  Spaniard,  and 
still  in  use  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  chief 
interest  in  the  islands  soon  came  to  be  the  production  of  sugar. 
Sugar  culture  began  in  Cuba  in  1520,  the  cane  being  brought 
from  Haiti,  but  until  1553  none  was  exported.  After  this, 
however,  the  industry  rapidly  increased,  and  by  1775  there 
were  four  hundred  and  seventy-three  sugar  plantations  on  the 
island.  As  we  have  already  observed,  agriculture  was,  from 
the  first,  the  most  important  industry  in  Brazil. 

Humboldt,  the  celebrated  traveler,  who  visited  Spanish 
America  in  1799-1804,  has  written  extensively  upon  the  Span- 
ish colonies.  Speaking  of  agriculture  in  Mexico,  he  says,  “Har- 
vests are  surprising  when  lands  are  carefully  cultivated,  espe- 
cially in  those  which  are  watered.”  Mexican  wheat  was  of  the 
best  quality  and  in  good  years  the  country  produced  much 
more  Indian  corn  than  the  people  could  consume.  Mexico  was 
also  rich  in  vegetables,  nutritive  roots,  and  potatoes.  Hum- 
boldt notes  the  great  number  of  cattle  especially  along  the 


106 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


eastern  coast.  Many  Mexican  families  possessed  from  thirty 
to  forty  thousand  head  of  horses  and  cattle, 
the  Colonies  Mules  were  common  and  would  have  been 

much  more  numerous  if  so  many  had  not 
perished  through  excessive  fatigue.  The  commerce  of  Vera 
Cruz  alone  employed  nearly  7,000  annually.  The  wealth  of 
Venezuela  was  entirely  agricultural  or  from  cattle.  In  1880 
there  were  exported  from  Venezuela  30,000  mules,  174,000  ox- 
hides, and  3,500,000  pounds  of  tasjo,  or  dried  meat.  Ulloa 
was  much  impressed  with  the  agricultural  prosperity  of  Peru. 
Along  the  Salto,  an  irrigated  valley,  he  saw  maize,  fruits,  and 
vegetables  produced  in  the  greatest  plenty.  Cattle-raising  was 
everywhere  an  important  industry  and  beef  was  very  cheap. 
In  one  instance  a herd  of  six  thousand  cattle  sold  for  $2.25  a 
head.  Large  individual  fortunes  were  not  uncommon  in  Latin 
America.  Thomas  Gage,  an  English  friar,  speaks  of  farmers 
worth  from  20,000  to  40,000  ducats,  and  even  Indians  worth 
from  10,000  to  20,000. 


III.  Mining 

Stories  of  the  fabulous  wealth  of  America  began  to  be  cir- 
culated immediately  on  its  discovery,  and  every  Spaniard  was 
on  the  lookout  for  treasure.  Columbus  on  his  last  voyage 
found  the  natives  of  Honduras  wearing  gold  ornaments,  and 
he  heard  reports  of  distant  realms  where  gold  was  to  be  found 
in  abundance.  In  the  early  years,  however,  very  little  gold  or 
The  First  Gold  and  silver  was  obtained  from  the  new  dominions 

silver  Found  by  the  of  Spain;  indeed,  it  was  not  until  the  con- 

quest of  Mexico  that  large  treasure  was  dis- 
covered. The  first  gold  and  silver  obtained  was  in  the  shape  of 
ornaments  and  vessels  used  in  the  native  temples.  The  ransom 
of  Atahualpa  consisted  of  plate,  temple  decorations,  golden 
ears  of  com  in  cases  of  silver,  etc.  All  of  these,  except  the 
finest  specimens — which  were  set  aside  for  royal  presents — 
were  melted  down  into  ingots  of  uniform  size.  The  Spaniards 
made  very  little  improvement  on  the  native  mining  methods, 
and  the  returns  from  the  first  mining  ventures  were  not  large. 
The  Indians  obtained  their  gold  by  skimming  the  surface  of  the 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


107 


ground  or  washing  the  sand  in  the  streams.  Humboldt  says, 
however,  that  the  Aztecs  were  versed  in  the 
^the  building  of  subterranean  shafts.  The  natives 

smelted  their  ore  in  a crude  manner,  using 
blowpipes  of  bamboo  to  increase  the  heat.  In  Peru  ore  was 
smelted  in  small  round  furnaces,  fed  by  charcoal  and  sheep’s 
excrements. 

The  first  of  the  great  mines  of  Mexico  were  discovered  in 
1539,  among  which  were  Taxco,  Sultepec,  and  Tzumpanco. 
The  rich  silver  mine  of  Potosi  was  found  (1545)  by  an  Indian, 
while  clambering  up  the  mountain  in  pursuit  of  a llama. 
At  that  time  it  was  the  richest  mine  in  the  world.  The  discov- 
ery of  these  exceedingly  rich  mines  gave  rise  to  exaggerated 
reports  as  to  the  richness  of  ores.  The  number  of  mines,  how- 
Discovery  of  Rich  ever,  steadily  advanced  with  a corresponding 
Mines,  and  New  increase  of  output.  The  mines  were  a great 

Minin*  Methods  source  of  private  wealth  and  from  them  the 

crown  obtained  great  revenue,  through  the  royal  fifth.  At  first 
only  the  richest  ores  were  worked,  especially  in  those  regions 
where  fuel  was  scarce,  but  in  1557  a new  method  of  extracting 
ores,  by  the  use  of  quicksilver,  was  discovered,  which  rendered 
ores,  formerly  considered  worthless,  valuable.  After  this  dis- 
covery Spain  made  a monopoly  of  quicksilver,  partly  for  the 
revenue  and  partly  to  keep  track  of  the  amount  of  metal  pro- 
duced. Miners  made  returns  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
quicksilver  distributed.  When  mercury  deposits  were  discov- 
ered in  New  Spain,  the  government  extended  its  monopoly  to 
include  these  mines  also. 

In  1800  the  mining  region  of  New  Spain  covered  about  12,225 
square  leagues,  according  to  Humboldt.  This  was  divided  into 
thirty-seven  departments  with  about  five  hundred  subdivisions, 
or  reales  de  mines,  each  of  which  comprised  about  3,000  miners. 
MiT,;„E  Lawg.  In  1777  a new  code  of  laws  governing  mines, 

Returns  from  the  known  as  “Ordonanzas  de  la  Mineria  de 
Nueva  Espana,”  was  drawn  up,  which  pro- 
vided for  a general  council  to  be  made  up  of  representatives 
from  each  of  the  thirty-seven  districts.  This  body  was  to  look 
after  the  interests  of  the  mines  and  miners.  Robertson  esti- 


108 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


nates  that  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  entered  annually 
into  the  ports  of  Spain  from  1492  to  1850  was  about  equal  to 
$20,000,000.  Humboldt  estimates  the  annual  average  pro- 
duction from  the  mines  from  1493  as  follows: 


1493-1500  250,000  pesos 

1500-1545  3,000,000  pesos 

1545-1600 11,000,000  pesos 

1600-1700 16,000,000  pesos 

1700-1750  22,500,000  pesos 

1750-1803  35,300,000  pesos 


At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  total  annual 
production  has  been  calculated  at  43,500,000  pesos,  or  about 
ten  times  the  known  production  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 

IV.  Roads  and  Travel 

“An  important  difference  between  the  Spanish  and  English 
settlers  in  America  is  that  in  the  one  case  the  settlers  have 
found  or  made  roads  over  which  they  could  drag  their  belong- 
ings on  carts,  or  wagons,  while  in  the  other  case  they  have  been 
content  to  carry  their  outfit  on  backs  of  mules  and  have  not 
insisted  that  their  settlements  should  be  connected  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  by  carriage  roads.”1  The  chief  method  of 
travel  in  colonial  Latin  America  was  by  mule  back,  though  in 
the  early  years  of  Spanish  colonization  Indian  carriers  were 
used  extensively.  Goods  were  brought  to  and  from  the  fairs 
by  these  two  means.  The  Indian  carrier  traveled  rapidly, 
bearing  a hundred  pounds  upon  his  head, 
Lau^America3761  m while  the  mule  did  not  carry  more  than  twice 
that  amount.  The  difficulty  of  the  roads 
among  the  mountains  was  increased  by  neglect.  Ulloa,  de- 
scribing his  experience  in  Peru,  says,  “If  a tree  . . . happens 
to  fall  across  the  road  and  stops  up  the  passage,  no  person  will 
be  at  the  pains  to  remove  it,  and  though  all  passing  that  way 
are  put  to  no  small  difficulty  by  such  an  obstacle,  it  is  suffered 
to  continue;  neither  the  government  nor  those  who  frequent 
the  road  taking  any  care  to  have  it  drawn  away.”  When  the 

1 Bernard  Moses,  “Economic  Conditions  of  Spain  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,”  American 
Historical  Association  Report,  1893,  p.  130. 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


109 


Roads  is  Cuba 


tree  is  so  large  as  to  fill  the  entire  passage,  the  Indians  cut  away 
enough  of  the  trunk  to  permit  the  mules  to  leap  over,  after 
being  unloaded.  This  causes  delay  and  perhaps  damage  to  the 
goods,  but  no  one  ever  thinks  of  entirely  removing  the  obstacle. 
Such  cases,  he  says,  are  general  all  over  the  country,  especially 
where  roads  lead  over  mountains  and  through  forests.1 

The  common  roads  of  Cuba  were  little  more  than  open  por- 
tions of  the  country  without  grading  or  repairs  of  any  kind. 

During  the  rainy  season  they  were  impass- 
able, and  transportation  of  sugar  for  only 
short  distances  was  very  costly.  Because  of  the  infrequency  of 
travel  in  the  island  there  were  no  hotels  or  taverns.  Hum- 
boldt observes  that  the  best  roads  were  found  in  the  western 
part  of  the  island  and  as  one  traveled  east  the  roads  became 
steadily  worse. 

Wherever  possible  water  transportation  was  used.  Ulloa  de- 
scribes two  kinds  of  boats  upon  the  Chagres  in  Panama,  one 
being  a kind  of  raft  called  a chatas,  of  great  breadth  and  draw- 
ing little  water,  while  the  other  was  made  from  one  piece  of 
timber.  Negroes  were  used  in  propelling  these  boats.  The 
Indians  of  Peru  had  rafts  which  they  propelled  with  sails,  while 
the  Indians  about  Lake  Titicaca  made  a kind  of  straw  boat 
for  use  on  the  lake.  The  Paraguay,  the  Uruguay,  and  the 
Parana  were  convenient  highways,  not  only  for  small  boats, 
but  likewise  for  ships,  as  were  also  the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and 
the  Magdalena. 

Travel  between  Vera  Cruz  and  Mexico  City,  toward  the 
close  of  the  colonial  period,  was  rendered  much  more  conven- 
ient and  easy  because  of  the  construction  of  an  excellent  high- 
way over  the  mountains.  This  road  was  lined  with  taverns 
and  lodging  houses  supported  by  the  king.  Travel  was  either 
by  mule  or  a kind  of  sedan  chair,  which  was 
carried  by  the  Indians.  In  1793  six  coaches 
were  placed  upon  the  streets  of  Mexico,  and 
in  the  next  year  the  proprietors  were  granted  a concession  to 
open  up  a stage  line  between  Mexico  City  and  Guadalajara 


Roads  and  Travel  in 
Mexico 


* Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  Voyages,  pp.  273,  274. 


110 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  stages  were  to  run  weekly  and  were  not  to  carry  more  than 
four  passengers.  The  price  for  one  passenger  to  Guadalajara 
was  $200;  two  passengers  $105  each,  and  four  were  to  pay 
$62.50  each.  The  return  was  half  price.  Between  1803  and 
1812  a fine  highway  was  built  between  Mexico  and  Vera  Cruz 
at  a cost  of  3,000,000  pesos. 

The  most  important  overland  routes  in  South  America  were 
from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Santiago  de  Chile,  and  from  Buenos  Ayres 
to  Luna.  The  fact  that  no  trade  could  come  in  or  leave  by  the 
port  of  Buenos  Ayres  compelled  the  La  Plata  merchants  to 
resort  to  Lima  for  their  goods.  The  distance 

South  American  i , _ . , 

overland  Routes  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  Lima  is  nearly 
twenty-eight  hundred  miles,  and  the  usual 
method  of  travel  over  this  long  road  was  by  slow  oxcart  carry- 
ing about  five  thousand  pounds.  After  1748  taverns  and  post 
houses  were  established  along  the  route  and  carriages  might 
be  obtained.  Travel  over  this  long  trail,  however,  was  always 
exceedingly  expensive  and  most  inconvenient.  The  route  from 
Buenos  Ayres  to  Santiago  was  over  the  pampas  until  Mendoza 
was  reached,  whence  the  traveler  exchanged  his  carriage  for  a 
mule.  In  the  trip  to  Lima  the  carriage  was  left  at  Salta,  where 
the  traveler  mounted  a mule  to  make  his  way  over  the  moun- 
tains.1 

V.  Labor  and  Slaves 

Labor  in  colonial  Latin  America  was  performed  by  the  In- 
dians and  Negro  slaves.  At  first  the  Spaniards  depended  upon 
the  Indians  to  work  their  plantations  and  mines.  This,  how- 
ever, proved  extremely  destructive  of  Indian  life.  The  en- 
comienda  system,  whereby  colonists  were 

Encomienda  and  Mita  " . . , . , . 

granted  Indians  to  cultivate  the  land,  be- 
came universal  throughout  Latin  America.  The  mita  was  a 
bodily  service  demanded  of  the  Indians.  The  Indian  population 
was  divided  into  seven  parts  and  every  mine  owner  had  the 
right  to  demand  from  the  district  the  number  of  Indians  he 
required.  Every  male  had  to  render  this  service,  which  lasted 
six  months.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  if  the  Indian  survived,  he 


1 Bernard  Moses,  The  Spanish  Dependencies  in  South  America,  vol.  ii,  pp.  382-395. 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


111 


Indian  tabor 


had  accumulated  a debt  to  the  proprietor  which  he  could  not 
pay,  and  as  a result  he  remained  in  perpetual  servitude.  So 
destructive  of  life  was  the  mita  that  the  calling  out  of  an  Indian 
for  this  service  was  considered  equivalent  to  a sentence  of  death, 
and  before  setting  out  he  disposed  of  his  belongings,  and  his 
relatives  went  through  the  funeral  service  before  him.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  in  Peru  alone,  in  the  course  of  three  hun- 
dred years,  the  mita  claimed  eight  million 
victims.  The  Indians  working  under  this 
system  received  about  ten  cents  a day.  In  Peru  and  Quito  the 
mita  system  was  extended  to  the  farms  and  factories,  and  here  the 
Indians  were  reduced  to  practical  slavery.  They  were  under- 
fed, overworked,  and  in  every  way  mistreated.  The  workers 
in  the  royal  tobacco  factories  in  Mexico  received  about  thirty 
cents  a day,  while  a laborer  in  Venezuela  received  fifteen  sous 
a day,  besides  his  food. 

Negro  slaves  were  early  introduced  into  the  islands.  We 
have  records  of  Negroes  being  sent  to  Haiti  as  early  as  1502, 
while  in  1510  Ferdinand  directed  the  Indian  House  to  send 
over  fifty  slaves.  Soon  traffic  in  slaves  between  the  Guinea 
coast  and  America  was  under  way.  The  Spaniards  found  the 
Negro  much  more  efficient  than  the  Indian  and  the  demand 
for  them  greatly  increased.  Las  Casas,  the  apostle  to  the 
Indians,  favored  the  use  of  Negroes,  and  finally  succeeded  in 
persuading  the  government  to  protect  the 
siIve°Trade8  ^ 016  Indians  by  sending  out  four  thousand  Ne- 
groes. This  was  the  beginning  of  a settled 
policy.  The  government  supplied  the  slaves  to  her  colonies  by 
letting  a contract,  called  the  asiento,  by  which  a certain  number 
of  slaves  were  to  be  supplied  yearly.  This  contract  was  held 
by  various  holders,  and  finally,  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
(1713),  came  into  the  possession  of  the  English  government. 
During  much  of  the  time  previous  to  this  it  had  been  held 
by  Portuguese.  The  contract  was  immensely  profitable  and 
the  holders  were  willing  to  pay  great  sums  to  the  Spanish 
government  for  the  privileges  it  gave.  Besides  this  legiti- 
mate slave  trade  there  grew  up  an  illicit  trade  in  slaves, 
begun  by  John  Hawkins  in  1562,  which  brought  to  Spanish 


112  A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 

America  several  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  slaves  each 
year. 

Negro  slavery,  however,  never  obtained  a great  hold  upon 
Latin  America  outside  the  islands,  the  northern  coast  regions 
of  South  America,  and  Brazil.  Indians  continued  to  perform 
much  of  the  work  in  New  Spain,  and  in  the  census  of  1793 
only  six  thousand  slaves  were  returned.  Peru  had  many  more 
Negroes  than  Mexico.  At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there 
were  nearly  a hundred  thousand  free  Negroes  and  slaves  in  Peru. 
As  a whole  the  Spaniards  were  mild  masters,  and  the  Spanish 
slave  code  was  much  less  severe  than  that  of  either  the  French 
In  Peru  the  law  allowed  a slave  to  work  for 
himself  several  hours  each  day.  He  had  the 
right  to  appeal  to  the  courts  if  cruelly  treated 
and  might  there  be  declared  free.  Negroes 
might  question  the  legality  of  their  enslavement,  and  the 
courts  were  ready  to  hear  their  cause;  in  fact,  Spanish  law  and 
administration  favored  emancipation  wherever  possible.  In 
consequence  of  this  liberal  and  humane  treatment  the  number 
of  free  Negroes  tended  to  rapidly  increase.  The  slave  popula- 
tion of  Cuba,  Haiti,  and  Jamaica  was  large.  In  1823  Hum- 
boldt gives  the  total  population  of  Cuba  at  715,000,  of  whom 
260,000  were  slaves  and  130,000  free  Negroes;  at  the  same 
time  Jamaica  had  a total  population  of  402,000,  with  342,000 
slaves,  35,000  free  Negroes,  and  only  about  25,000  whites.  An 
adult  male  slave  in  Cuba  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
was  worth  from  $450  to  $500;  a newly  imported  African  from 
$370  to  $400.  The  cost  of  keeping  a Negro  slave  in  Cuba  was 
from  $45  to  $50  a year,  or  about  twenty-five  cents  a day. 

VI.  Taxes,  Imposts,  and  Revenue 
To  the  North  American,  familiar  with  the  colonial  history  of 
the  thirteen  English  colonies,  the  number  and  amount  of  taxes 
collected  by  Spain  from  her  American  possessions  seems  un- 
believable. Perhaps  the  greatest  contrast  between  the  col- 
onies of  England  and  those  of  Spain  lies  here.  England  ob- 
tained no  direct  revenue  from  her  colonies,  and  even  the  famous 
Stamp  Act,  which  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  Revolution, 


or  the  English. 

Number  and 
Treatment  of  Negro 
Slaves 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


113 


was  not  intended  to  produce  revenue  for  England.  Rather,  the 
English  and  Spanish  Stamp  Act  was  passed  to  help  pay  the  ex- 
Coionies  Contrasted  penses  of  maintaining  English  soldiers  in 
m Respect  to  Taxes  America,  whom  England  placed  there  for 
America’s  protection.  On  the  other  hand,  Spain  obtained  vast 
financial  returns  from  her  American  possessions,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  she  was  utilizing  every  possible 
resource  for  obtaining  increased  revenue.  “No  possible  oppor- 
tunity of  drawing  wealth  into  the  royal  exchequer  was  thrown 
away;  luxuries,  industries,  and  vices  were  alike  made  to  con- 
tribute their  quota.  By  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
there  were  more  than  sixty  sources  from  which  revenue  was 
obtained.”1 

For  the  first  few  years  of  the  colonial  period  the  principal 
source  of  revenue  was  Indian  tribute.  The  Indians  who  had 
made  war  upon  the  Spaniards  were  the  first  made  to  pay  this 
tax.  Later,  when  Montezuma  became  the  vassal  of  the  king  of 
Spain,  he  sent  valuable  presents  to  Charles  V,  and  soon  after 
the  capture  of  Mexico  an  order  was  issued  requiring  the  In- 
dians to  pay  a regular  sum  into  the  royal  treasury.  At  first 
this  tax  amounted  to  one  third  of  all  produce,  or  an  equivalent 
in  the  precious  metals.  This  was  far  too  heavy  to  be  borne 
and  was  steadily  reduced,  and  finally  abol- 
RoyaT Fifth UtC  ^ 1116  lshed  in  1810.  This  tax,  however,  through 
most  of  the  colonial  period,  was  a very  im- 
portant source  of  revenue,  and  in  1504  a general  officer  was 
appointed  to  manage  its  collection.  Another  of  the  earliest 
taxes  imposed  was  the  royal  fifth.  This  was  established  in 
1504  and  required  that  all  products  of  mines — gold,  silver, 
quicksilver,  tin — as  well  as  all  treasure,  or  treasure  trove,  was 
to  pay  a royal  tax  of  one  fifth.  In  1528  an  inspector  of  mines 
was  appointed  for  Mexico,  part  of  whose  duty  was  to  collect 
this  tax.  In  some  instances  it  was  found  to  be  discouraging  to 
mines  and  was  reduced  to  one  tenth  in  1572,  and  toward  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  still  further  reduced  to 
three  per  cent  on  gold  and  eleven  per  cent  on  silver. 


1 H.  H.  Bancroft,  Mexico,  vol.  iii,  pp.  6S5ff. 


114 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Alcavala 


The  most  profitable  of  all  taxes  was  the  alcavala.  This  was 
a tax  on  sales,  which  had  been  known  in  Spain  since  the  middle 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  In  1568  Philip  II  decided  to  intro- 
duce the  tax  into  the  Indies,  though  it  was  not  actually  col- 
lected in  Mexico  until  1574  and  in  Peru  in 
1591.  In  1588  it  was  imposed  upon  the 
Indians.  This  was  a very  burdensome  tax.  The  smallest 
articles  and  the  commonest  necessities  of  life,  as  they  passed 
from  one  owner  to  another,  were  taxed  over  and  over  again. 
On  property  like  land,  which  sold  but  seldom,  it  was  not  bur- 
densome, but  upon  small  articles  of  merchandise  which  changed 
hands  frequently,  the  tax  soon  absorbed  the  value  of  the  ar- 
ticle. At  first  the  tax  was  two  per  cent,  but  later  it  was  doubled 
and  trebled. 

Another  fruitful  source  of  revenue  was  the  maritime  dues, 
or  import  and  export  duties.  The  import  duty  on  cotton 
and  woolen  goods  and  articles  of  food  was  3534  per  cent;  on 
linen  and  silk  articles,  29 34-  Some  articles 
paid  fixed  duties,  such  as  flour,  which  paid 
$2  per  barrel  if  shipped  from  Spain,  and 
$10.75  if  from  a foreign  port.  Export  duties  were  imposed 
arbitrarily  without  any  regard  to  the  value  of  goods.  Coffee  paid 
20  cents  a quintal;  sugar,  8734  cents  a box;  and  cigars  75  cents 
per  thousand.  Besides  tonnage  duties  were  collected;  Spanish 
vessels  paid  6234  cents  per  ton;  foreign  vessels,  $1.50  per  ton. 

Besides  the  three  great  internal  taxes,  Indian  tributes,  the 
royal  fifth  and  the  alcavala,  there  were  many  others.  For 
every  head  of  beef  butchered  $3.50  was  paid;  for  every  sheep 
and  goat,  3734  cents;  for  every  arroba  of 
swine,  31  cents.  Paper  for  common  use 
was  divided  into  six  classes,  the  taxes  on  each  sheet  ranging 
from  $8  to  five  cents.  Stamps  were  used  on  bills  of  exchange 
and  notes.  Judges  collected  fees;  a tax  of  four  per  cent  was 
levied  on  cost  of  judicial  proceedings;  an  impost  was  levied 
on  shops  and  stores;  in  short,  every  possible  source  of  revenue 
was  exploited. 

Monopolies  conducted  by  the  crown  were  still  another  source 
of  royal  income.  Quicksilver  was  the  first  of  such  monopolies. 


Import  and  Export 
Duties 


Other  Internal  Taxes 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


115 


No  sooner  was  the  new  process  of  obtaining  metals  from  ores, 
by  means  of  quicksilver,  discovered,  than  the  crown  seized  the 
opportunity  of  increasing  the  means  of  revenue.  Gunpowder 
was  another  monopoly  held  by  the  government.  At  first  the 
monopoly  was  sold  to  the  Ortega  family,  but 

Royal  Monopolies  . „ J , , . . 

m 1776  the  government  took  it  over.  A 
monopoly  on  salt  was  established  in  1580.  Tobacco  was  the 
most  productive  of  the  royal  monopolies,  and  tobacco  pro- 
duction was  prohibited  except  under  contract  with  the  gov- 
ernment, and  all  tobacco  factories  were  directly  under 
government  management.  Other  government  monopolies  were 
ice,  playing  cards,  and  cock  pits.  In  1769  a government  lottery 
was  established  and  the  profits  from  this  source  alone  in  1798 
were  $109,255.  Pulque,  the  native  drink,  paid  a heavy  tax,  as 
did  also  other  liquors. 

The  church  was  also  made  to  contribute  her  quota  to  the 
royal  income.  The  chief  revenue  from  this  source  was  from 
the  “Bull  of  Cruzada.”  This,  as  described  by  Robertson, 
“contained  an  absolution  from  past  offenses  by  the  pope,  and 
among  other  things  a permission  to  eat  several  kinds  of  pro- 
hibited food  during  Lent  and  other  fast  days.”  The  bulls 
were  very  widely  sold,  the  monks  extolling  their  virtues  “with 
all  the  fervor  of  interested  eloquence,  and  were  purchased  by 
every  class  of  society.  The  price  varied  according  to  the  rank 
of  the  purchaser.  The  bull  was  first  pub- 
lished in  Spain  in  1533.  They  were  divided 
into  two  classes,  bulas  de  vivos,  dispensa- 
tions for  the  living,  and  bulas  de  difuntos,  which  friends  and 
relatives  purchased  for  deceased  persons.  In  New  Spain  dur- 
ing one  sale  2,649,325  bulls  were  sold,  and  the  same  year  1,172,- 
953  were  sold  in  Peru.  Church  tithes  were  also  another  source 
of  revenue  for  the  king.  In  1501  the  pope  granted  the  king 
of  Spain  the  right  of  collecting  church  tithes  in  the  Indies.  At 
first  the  tithes  were  devoted  entirely  to  the  church,  but  later 
part  of  these  dues  found  their  ways  into  the  royal  treasury.” 
“Everything  from  silk  and  cocoa,  to  lentils  and  pot  herbs,” 
paid  the  church  tithe,  all  of  which,  we  must  remember,  was  in 
addition  to  the  other  taxes  imposed. 


Revenues  from  the 
Church 


116 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Other  Exactions 


And  even  yet  the  list  is  not  complete.  There  was  a tax  on 
slaves  imported;  offices  were  sold  to  the  highest  bidder;  many 
nonsalaried  administrative  officials  collected 
fees  for  their  services,  as  did  also  nonsalaried 
judicial  officials.  At  every  turn  the  Spanish  colonist  met  taxes 
and  exactions. 

To  guard  the  royal  revenue  the  strictest  laws  were  enacted 
to  govern  the  revenue  officials.  Treasury  officials  could  not 
engage  in  commercial  enterprises  nor  work  mines.  Certain 
offices,  such  as  that  of  corregidor  and  alcalde  mayor,  were 
closed  against  them,  nor  could  they  hold  Indians  in  encomienda. 

The  safe  where  the  royal  money  was  kept 
had  three  locks,  each  with  a separate  key, 
and  each  of  the  three  chiefs  of  the  depart- 
ment held  a key,  so  that  the  safe  could  not  be  unlocked  unless 
all  three  were  present.  And  even  the  office  door  where  the 
safe  was  kept  had  similar  locks.  Other  provisions,  prescribing 
most  minutely  the  duties  of  the  treasury  officials,  limiting  the 
action  of  their  sons  and  daughters,  were  enacted.  And  yet  all 
these  regulations  did  not  keep  out  corruption  nor  guard  suffi- 
ciently the  king’s  revenue. 


Royal  Treasury 
Officials 


READING  REFERENCES 

The  best  accounts  of  the  Spanish  Trade  system  will  be  found  in  Estab- 
lishment of  Spanish  Rule  in  America,  by  Bernard  Moses,  Chapters  III 
and  XI;  and  Spain  in  America,  by  E.  G.  Bourne,  Chapter  XIX. 

The  works  of  Alexander  Humboldt,  The  Island  of  Cuba;  Political  Essay 
on  New  Spain  (3  vols.),  and  Travels  to  Equinoctial  America,  1799-1804, 
contain  much  interesting  and  valuable  information  relating  to  economic 
conditions  in  colonial  Latin  America. 

History  of  Mexico,  by  H.  H.  Bancroft,  Vol.  Ill,  Chapters  XXVIII- 
XXXI,  is  an  excellent  account  of  Mexican  conditions. 

South  America  on  the  Eve  of  Emancipation,  by  Bernard  Moses,  Chapter 
XIII,  is  a careful  study  of  colonial  industry  and  commerce,  just  at  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Spain  in  America,  by  E.  G.  Bourne,  Chapter  XVIII,  describes  con- 
dition of  Negro  slaves  in  Latin  America. 

Spanish  Conquest  in  America,  by  Sir  Arthur  Helps,  Vol.  I,  gives  special 
attention  to  the  Indians  and  the  introduction  of  Negro  slaves. 

A Voyage  to  South  America,  by  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa  (1758), 
2 vols. 


COLONIAL  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


117 


is  well  worth  reading  for  their  account  of  economic  conditions,  and  espe- 
cially the  corruptions  prevailing  in  Peru. 

Spanish  Dependencies  in  South  America,  by  Bernard  Moses,  Vol.  II, 
Chapter  XIX,  has  some  interesting  information  concerning  travel  and 
transportation. 

Latin  America,  by  W.  R.  Shepherd,  is  a brief  general  account  of  economic 
conditions  in  colonial  Latin  America. 

Trade  and  Navigation  between  Spain  and  the  Indies  in  the  Time  of  the 
Hapsburgs,  by  Clarence  Henry  Haring  (Harvard  University  Press,  1918). 
Chapters  of  especial  interest  in  this  volume  are  “The  Casa  de  Con- 
tratacidn,”  “The  Precious  Metals,”  and  “Ships  and  Navigators.” 


CHAPTER  X 

SOCIETY  IN  COLONIAL  LATIN  AMERICA 


Spanish  Treatment  of 
the  Indians 


No  adequate  comprehension  of  Spanish  colonial  society,  nor, 
indeed,  of  Latin-American  society  of  to-day,  can  be  obtained 
unless  we  first  understand  the  relationship  of  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  conquerors  with  the  Indians.  We  of  North 
America  are  quite  apt  to  conclude  at  once,  without  a very  care- 
ful investigation,  that  the  Spaniard  especially  was  much  more 
cruel  in  his  dealings  with  the  Indians  than  were  our  forefathers. 

We  are  sure,  however,  that  an  impartial  stu- 
dent will,  upon  close  study,  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Spaniard  was  no  worse 
in  this  respect  than  the  Englishman.  This  conclusion,  how- 
ever, does  not  relieve  the  Spaniard  of  just  criticism.  Just  as 
the  Spaniard  transferred  his  political  institutions  to  America, 
so  also  he  brought  over  his  religion,  his  ideas  and  ideals.  The 
early  Spanish  conquerors  were  soldiers,  and  the  long  wars  with 
the  Moors,  and  the  presence  of  the  Jews,  had  bred  into  the  Span- 
ish character  strong  religious  fanaticism.  The  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion had  accustomed  him  to  the  public  burnings  of  heretics, 
and  when  he  came  in  contact  with  the  Indians  of  America  he 
treated  them  as  he  had  seen  so-called  heretics  in  Spain  treated. 

Columbus,  finding  Indians  on  the  island,  thought  they  would 
make  good  servants.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  however,  he  was 
instructed  by  the  monarchs  to  deal  kindly  with  the  natives. 
In  spite  of  this  admonition  Columbus  captured  six  hundred 
Indians  and  sent  them  to  Spain  as  slaves.  This  action  was 
quickly  repudiated  by  the  queen  especially,  who  promptly 
ordered  them  sent  back.  Later  Columbus  began  a policy  of 
levying  tribute  upon  the  natives,  and  those  who  could  not 
pay  were  compelled  to  work.  Under  the  suc- 
cessors of  Columbus  the  enslavement  of  the 
Indians,  under  the  system  of  encomienda, 
was  carried  much  farther,  and  was  soon  extended  to  all  the 

118 


The  Beginning  of  the 
Encomienda  System 


SOCIETY  IN  COLONIAL  LATIN  AMERICA  119 


islands.  From  the  islands  it  was  brought  to  the  mainland. 
The  encomienda  has  been  defined  as  “a  right,  conceded  by 
royal  bounty  to  well-deserving  persons  in  the  Indies,  to  receive 
and  enjoy  for  themselves  the  tributes  of  the  Indians  who  should 
be  assigned  to  them,  with  the  charge  of  providing  for  the  good 
of  those  Indians  in  spiritual  and  temporal  matters,  and  of  in- 
habiting and  defending  the  provinces  where  these  encomiendas 
should  be  granted  to  them.”  The  system  of  encomienda  was 
not  slavery,  since  individual  Indians  might  not  be  bought  and 
sold,  but  the  system  corresponded  more  nearly  to  mediaeval 
serfdom. 

The  Spanish  monarchs  were  kindly  disposed  toward  the  In- 
dians, and  especially  was  this  true  of  Isabella.  She  gave  definite 
instruction  to  Ovando  not  to  enslave  the  Indians.  After  the 
death  of  the  good  queen,  Ferdinand  relaxed  more  and  more 
in  his  opposition  to  enslavement  of  the  Indians,  and  when 
pressed  by  suitors  for  favors  he  gave  them  Indians.  Some  of 
the  recipients  of  these  gifts  came  to  America,  while  others 
became  absentee  proprietors,  and  farmed  out  their  Indians. 
In  1512  Ferdinand  issued  an  ordinance  forbidding  anyone  in 
the  Indies  holding  more  than  three  hundred  Indians.  This 
ordinance  also  laid  down  certain  regulations  in  respect  to  their 
treatment.  The  settlers  were  to  use  gentle  means  in  getting 
Treatment  of  the  the  natives  to  come  willingly;  large  huts 
Indians  During  were  to  be  provided  for  every  fifty  Indians; 
the  Early  Period  and  a certain  amount  of  land  for  the  growing 
of  food  should  be  set  apart  for  each  fifty;  when  working  in 
mines  the  Indians  were  required  to  work  five  months  at  a 
time,  when  they  were  to  enjoy  a period  of  rest  of  forty  days, 
during  which  time  they  might  cultivate  land  on  their  own 
account.  In  1523  the  crown  forbade  the  granting  of  reparti- 
mientos  in  Mexico,  though  this  order  was  later  withdrawn. 
By  1532  the  system  was  extended  to  Peru  by  Pizarro.  In  1536 
a law  was  promulgated  granting  Indians  in  encomienda  for 
two  lives.  In  the  meanwhile  Las  Casas  had  been  at  work  in 
the  Indian’s  behalf.  He  had  labored  successfully  in  behalf  of 
the  conversion  of  the  Indians,  and  had  preached  incessantly 
in  favor  of  their  liberation.  In  his  celebrated  book,  The  De- 


120 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


struction  of  the  Indies,  he  had  argued  powerfully  for  liberation. 
Finally,  his  long  labors  were  successful  in  securing  the  adop- 
tion of  what  were  known  as  the  “New  Laws.”  These  laws  pro- 
vided that  after  the  death  of  the  conquerors  the  repartimientos 
of  Indians,  given  to  them  in  encomienda,  were  not  to  pass  to 
their  heirs,  but  were  to  go  to  the  king.  Personal  service  of 
Indians  was  to  be  entirely  abolished,  although  the  encomien- 
dros  was  to  retain  the  right  to  a moderate  tribute. 

The  net  result  of  these  “New  Laws”  was  that  they  failed  of 
execution,  and  the  settlers  continued  to  hold  their  Indians. 
The  attempted  execution  of  the  New  Laws  in  Peru  caused  a 
rebellion  of  the  settlers,  while  in  Mexico  the  inhabitants  on 
learning  of  them  resolved  to  clothe  themselves  in  mourning. 
When  the  official  sent  to  carry  out  the  laws  arrived  he  was 
immediately  met  with  petitions  and  remonstrances  against 
their  publication.  In  spite  of  these  remonstrances  the  laws 
were  published  in  March,  1544,  and  a revolt  was  threatened. 

Rebellion,  however,  was  allayed  by  the  bishop 
the  “New  Laws”  calling  a meeting  at  the  cathedral,  the  clergy 
as  a whole  not  being  in  favor  of  the  laws,  as 
they  themselves  held  encomiendras.  Finally,  the  next  year  a 
royal  decree  was  issued  revoking  the  laws.  The  system  of 
encomienda  continued  until  1700,  when  it  was  abolished, 
though  its  effects  are  plainly  visible  to  the  present  day.  What- 
ever may  be  said  of  the  cruelties  practiced  by  the  Spanish 
colonists  upon  the  Indians,  this  much  must  be  said  for  the 
Spanish  government:  it  did  all  in  its  power  to  protect  the 
Indians,  and  “the  Indian  legislation  of  the  Spanish  kings  is  an 
impressive  monument  of  benevolent  intentions  which  need  not 
fear  comparison  with  the  contemporary  legislation  of  any 
European  country  affecting  the  status  of  the  working  classes” 
(Bourne,  p.  256). 

Just  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  two  Span- 
iards, George  Juan  and  Antonio  Ulloa,  visited  South  America, 
and  resided  for  some  years  in  Peru  and  Ecuador.  On  the  king’s 
command  they  wrote  an  account  of  their  observations  as  to  the 
treatment  of  the  Indians.  The  report,  known  as  Noticias 
Secretas  de  America,  is  a damning  arraignment  of  the  Spanish 


SOCIETY  IN  COLONIAL  LATIN  AMERICA  121 


The  Secret  Report  of 
George  Juan  and 
Antonio  Ulloa 


colonial  officials  and  of  the  colonists.  The  report  shows  that  the 
corregidors,  who  were  charged  with  the  col- 
lection of  the  Indian  tribute,  greatly  abused 
their  office,  for  their  own  enrichment.  Cer- 
tain classes  of  Indians  were  legally  exempt  from  paying 
tribute,  but  the  corregidor  paid  no  heed  to  these  exemptions, 
and  collected  from  every  Indian,  and  kept  all  he  could  collect 
over  and  above  what  was  required  by  law.  The  corregidor 
exercised  almost  absolute  power  in  his  district  and  the  Indians 
had  no  redress.  Another  means  of  exploitation  employed  by 
this  official  was  through  his  sale  of  goods  to  the  natives.  This 
was  originally  intended  as  a benefit,  but  as  used  by  the  cor- 
regidors was  an  unmitigated  curse.  Instead  of  consulting  the 
Exploitation  of  the  Indian’s  needs,  he  bought  those  articles  which 

Natives  by  the  he  could  obtain  cheaply  and  on  credit,  and 

corregidor  then  proceeded  to  distribute  them  among  the 

Indians  according  to  their  ability  to  pay.  For  instance,  one 
corregidor  bought  a supply  of  spectacles,  and  required  that 
every  Indian  wear  them  when  he  went  to  mass;  silk  stockings 
were  distributed  among  barefooted  Indians;  meat  of  dead 
animals,  unfit  to  eat,  was  parceled  out  among  the  natives, 
for  which  they  were  charged  exorbitant  prices. 

On  the  estates  the  Indians  worked  three  hundred  days  in 
the  year,  and  received  $18;  of  this  sum  $8  was  taken  for  tribute 
money.  In  the  cotton  factories  the  native  workers  were  locked 
in  at  the  beginning  of  the  day,  and  were  re- 
quired to  do  a certain  amount  of  work;  if 
not  completed  at  the  close  of  the  day,  they  were  cruelly  flogged. 
The  priests  seemed  to  work  hand  in  hand  with  the  corregidor 
and  others  to  despoil  the  Indians.  The  poor  natives  were 
charged  for  every  service  performed  by  the  church.  One  curate 
in  the  province  of  Quito  reported  that  “he  collected  every  year 
more  than  200  sheep,  5,000  hens  and  chickens, 
4,000  guinea  pigs,  50,000  eggs,”  and  this 
curacy,  we  are  reminded,  was  not  one  of  the 
most  lucrative.  The  monks  who  held  curacies  carried  oppres- 
sion to  its  utmost  bounds.  The  monk  generally  had  an  Indian 
concubine,  under  whose  charge  were  all  the  women  and  chil- 


Lndian  Wages 


The  Church  and  the 
Indians 


122 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


dren  of  the  parish,  whom  she  exploited  by  converting  all  the 
village  into  a manufactory  for  her  profit.  Altogether  the  Ulloa 
report  gives  an  exceedingly  dark  picture  of  conditions  prevail- 
ing among  the  Indians,  which  we  are  compelled  to  believe 
because  of  the  official  standing  and  loyalty  to  the  church  of 
the  men  who  made  it. 

The  Spaniards,  because  of  their  contact  with  the  Moham- 
medan life  in  Spain,  had  become  very  tolerant  of  irregular 
relations  of  the  sexes.  Plural  marriages  were  recognized  by 
the  laws,  and  among  the  clergy  celibacy  was  more  an  ideal 
than  a fact.  Concubinage  was  common  among  both  priests 
and  monks,  while  among  the  laity  the  marriage  bond  was 
lightly  borne  both  by  husbands  and  wives.  Life  in  America 
did  not  improve  the  Spaniard’s  morals,  but  tended,  rather,  to 
accentuate  the  condition  prevalent  in  Spain.  The  early  Span- 
ish conquerors  came  to  America  without  their  women,  and 
Intermarriage  of  they  seem  to  have  possessed  no  moral  or 
Natives  with  racial  feeling  against  mingling  their  blood 

Spaniards  with  that  of  the  natives.  When  Ovando 

came  to  Hispaniola  he  found  practically  all  the  Spaniards  had 
taken  Indian  women  as  concubines.  The  Franciscan  monks 
protested  against  this  condition,  and  the  governor  ordered  that 
the  Spaniards  should  either  marry  these  women  or  separate 
from  them.  Ferdinand  made  an  attempt  to  send  out  white 
women  to  be  the  wives  of  the  settlers,  but  this  expedient 
proved  inadequate,  and  two  years  later  a royal  ordinance  was 
issued  legalizing  marriage  between  the  natives  and  the  Span- 
iards. Many  of  the  conquistadores  had  wives  in  Spain,  and 
Governor  Ovando  attempted  to  send  those  having  wives  back 
to  Spain,  but  later  married  men  were  not  allowed  to  come  out 
to  the  Indies  without  their  wives. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  Irala,  while  governor  of  Asuncion, 
allowed  the  practice  of  polygamy,  Irala  himself  espousing  the 
seven  daughters  of  the  principal  chief.  On  his  death  he  asked, 
in  his  will,  that  the  children  by  these  wives  be  considered  as 
Spaniards.  White  women  were  extremely  rare  in  Chile,  and 
we  are  told  that  every  Spanish  trooper  was  attended  by  from 
four  to  six  native  women.  The  long  wars  with  the  warlike 


SOCIETY  IN  COLONIAL  LATIN  AMERICA  123 


Examples  of  Race 
Mixture 


Araucanians  had  killed  off  the  native  men,  and  the  ratio  of 
soldiers  to  native  women  in  the  frontier  gar- 
risons was  one  to  four.  In  a single  week  in 
1580  sixty  illegitimate  children  were  bom  in  a 
post  where  there  were  a hundred  and  sixty  soldiers.  Married 
men  kept  concubines  in  great  numbers,  and  Aguirre,  one  of 
the  conquistadores,  left  on  his  death  fifty  illegitimate  sons,  to 
say  nothing  of  daughters.  In  1776  it  was  estimated  that  in 
Santiago  women  were  ten  times  as  numerous  as  men,  while 
Humboldt,  in  1803,  estimates  that  only  one  tenth  of  the 
European-born  Spaniards  in  Mexico  were  women.  Out  of 
such  free  mixing  of  the  races  a great  variety  of  types  naturally 
came. 

At  the  top  of  the  social  scale  stood  the  European-bom  Span- 
iard, or  the  chapeton.  This  class  contained  the  great  land- 
holders and  the  important  officers  in  church  and  state.  After 
the  chapeton  came  the  creole,  or  the  American-born  Spaniard. 
The  creole,  like  the  chapeton,  was  a pure  white,  many  of  them 
being  the  descendants  of  the  conquerors,  and  in  many  cases 
they  also  held  large  estates.  They  were  deprived  of  the  offices 
in  both  church  and  state,  which  was  the  cause  of  a growing 
friction  between  the  two  white  classes.  Ranking  third  was 
the  mestizo,  the  race  resulting  from  the  mingling  of  the  blood 
of  the  natives  with  that  of  the  Spaniards.  In  some  instances 
they  were  almost  on  a level  with  the  creole,  and  held  consid- 
erable property,  but  more  often  they  were  artisans.  Distinctly 
lower  than  the  mestizo  was  the  mulatto,  of 
white  and  Negro  parentage.  He  performed 
the  coarser  labor,  though  at  the  time  of  the  revolutions  some 
of  this  class  had  attained  honorable  positions.  We  have  al- 
ready treated  the  Indian  at  some  length,  his  social  status  being 
that  of  an  enforced  laborer.  At  the  foot  of  the  social  ladder 
were  the  Negroes,  and  the  mixture  of  the  Negro  and  the  In- 
dian, the  zambo.  At  first  Negroes  had  been  brought  over  as 
slaves,  but  they  were  never  numerous,  outside  the  islands,  and 
the  northern  part  of  South  America,  and  in  Brazil.  In  the 
other  parts  of  the  country  they  were  to  be  found  about  the 
ports.  Many  succeeded  in  gaining  their  freedom,  and  when 


Social  Classes 


124 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


free  they  often  rose  above  the  Indians  in  the  social  scale.  The 
Indians  were  morose  and  sullen.  A spirit  of  jealousy  prevailed 
among  the  various  social  classes.  This  social  discontent,  how- 
ever, was  looked  upon  with  favor  by  the  government,  consid- 
ering it  an  element  of  safety,  and  therefore  no  effort  was  made 
to  allay  it. 


The  Church  as  an  Element  in  Latin  American  Society 

By  far  the  most  important  social  organization  in  Latin 
America  was  the  church.  The  religious  motive  had  always 
been  a dominant  one  among  the  Spanish  conquistadores  and 
the  work  of  converting  the  Indians  to  Christianity  was  not 
The  church  an  only  undertaken  by  the  church,  but  this 

important  Social  worthy  work  was  seconded  by  civil  power, 
institution  The  church  in  the  Spanish  dependencies  was 

always  dependent  upon  the  Spanish  crown.  “No  church, 
monastery,  or  hospital  could  be  erected  except  in  accordance 
with  the  king’s  ordinances,”  while  a goodly  proportion  of  the 
revenues  of  the  church  found  its  way  into  the  royal  treasury. 

The  three  orders,  Franciscan,  Augustinian,  and  Dominican, 
were  active  in  the  early  years  of  colonization  and  the  powerful 
Jesuit  Society  after  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Mem- 
bers of  the  order  became  prominent  in  the  work  of  propagating 
Christianity  in  the  New  World.  There  were 

Types  of  Work  . . 

Carried  on  by  the  three  distmct  types  of  work  carried  on  by 

Church  in  Latin  the  church  in  America.  First  was  the  work 

in  the  Spanish  towns,  in  charge  of  a cura  or 
priest,  which  was  a work  similar  to  the  work  of  a parish  priest 
in  Spain;  second,  the  work  in  the  Indian  villages,  which  was  in 
charge  of  two  or  more  friars  or  of  a cura;  third,  the  work  car- 
ried on  among  the  wild  Indians  by  the  missionaries.  The  mis- 
sionaries gathered  the  Indians  into  villages,  where  they  were 
taught  the  elements  of  civilization  and  Christianity.  When 
the  work  of  the  missionary  was  completed  he  moved  on  and 
the  village  became  a “pueblo  de  Indios,”  and  a doctrinal  curate 
was  placed  in  charge. 

Although  the  church  in  America  was  directly  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Spanish  crown,  exercised  through  the  Council  of 


SOCIETY  IN  COLONIAL  LATIN  AMERICA  125 


the  Indies,  yet  this  control  did  not  hinder  it  from  becoming 
extremely  wealthy.  There  is  evidence,  however,  that  the  king 
of  Spain  did  not  favor  the  accumulation  of  property  in  the 
hands  of  the  church.  Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury a large  proportion  of  the  property  in  the  city  of  Lima  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  chinch,  including  four 
Ui^coiontes61*7  ^ Dominican  monasteries,  three  Franciscan, 
three  Augustinian,  with  eleven  others  of 
various  orders.  Besides  there  were  fourteen  convents  for  nuns; 
five  houses  for  pious  women,  in  addition  to  hospitals  and  other 
institutions  devoted  to  charitable  or  religious  purposes.  There 
was  a numerous  priesthood,  with  bishops  and  archbishops.  In 
Mexico  about  1800  there  were  some  14,000  clergy,  eight  bish- 
ops, and  one  archbishop,  with  a total  value  of  property 
amounting  to  some  $75,000,000.  In  South  America  there  were 
some  20  bishoprics.  When  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from 
Spanish  America  in  1767  there  were  in  Mexico  23  Jesuit  col- 
leges, 8 convents,  5 residences,  103  missions,  with  122,000 
neophytes. 

The  Inquisition  was  introduced  into  the  colonies  in  the  later 
sixteenth  century.  The  Indians,  however,  were  never  brought 
under  its  jurisdiction.  The  actual  number  condemned  and 
executed  by  this  tribunal  in  the  colonies  was  comparatively 
few;  not  more  than  a hundred  in  Peru  and 
Mexico  in  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  years. 
In  Peru  there  were  twenty-nine  “autos  da  fe,”  or  burnings. 
The  first  one  took  place  in  1581  and  the  last  in  1776.  The 
chief  work  of  the  Inquisition  in  America  was  the  condemning 
of  books.  The  number  of  books  expurgated  or  prohibited  in- 
cluded the  works  of  five  thousand  four  hundred  and  twenty 
authors,  which  included  the  names  of  the  greatest  thinkers  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 


The  Inquisition 


Education 

The  work  of  education  was  likewise  in  the  hands  of  the 
church,  and  was  based  on  dogma  and  discipline.  It  was  con- 
ducted entirely  for  the  interests  of  a small  class;  no  such  thing 
as  popular  education  was  thinkable.  The  great  mass  of  the 


126 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Primary  Education 


Universities 


population  received  no  training  except  such  as  was  given  in 
the  public  exercises  of  the  church.  Indians  and  half-breeds  in 
some  instances  received  rudimentary  teaching  at  the  mission 
schools.  The  Franciscans  built  schools  be- 
side their  churches,  where  Indians  were 
taught  the  three  “R’s.”  A great  school  for  Indian  boys  was 
established  in  Mexico,  where  a thousand  could  be  accommo- 
dated. Jesuits  established  a number  of  schools  of  secondary 
grade.  Some  of  the  wealthier  families  sent  their  children  to 
Spain  for  their  education,  though  this  practice  was  far  from 
being  universal. 

Twelve  universities  were  founded  in  Latin  America  during 
the  colonial  period,  eight  of  them  before  the  creation  of  Har- 
vard. In  1551  the  Universities  of  Mexico  and  Saint  Mark  in 
Lima  were  founded  by  Charles  V,  while  in  1614  the  Jesuits 
founded  a university  at  Cordoba.  In  the  early  eighteenth 
century  the  University  of  Saint  Mark  had 
nearly  two  thousand  students  and  some  hun- 
dred and  eight  instructors.  Instruction  was  offered  in  theol- 
ogy, civil  and  canon  law,  medicine,  and  the  arts.  As  a whole 
the  number  of  schools  and  colleges  founded  by  the  Spaniards 
in  their  colonies,  and  the  range  of  studies  pursued,  were  su- 
perior to  anything  in  English  North  America  during  the  same 
period. 

The  attainment  of  scholarship  in  the  Spanish  colonies  was 
also  considerable.  Much  good  work  was  done  in  medicine 
and  surgery.  The  native  languages  were  re- 
duced to  written  forms  and  dictionaries  and 
grammars  prepared.  The  bulk  of  the  books 
published  by  colonial  authors  were  upon  religious  subjects, 
written  by  ecclesiastics.  The  colonial  period  was  rich  in  his- 
torical productions,  among  them  being  Duran’s  Historia  de 
las  Indias  de  Nueva  Espana  and  Acosta’s  Natural  and  Civil 
History  of  the  Indies;  and  Bernal  Diaz,  History  of  the  Con- 
quest of  New  Spain. 

A type  of  literature  which  became  quite  common  during  the  co- 
lonial period  was  the  heroic  poem.  The  first  and  most  famous 
of  these  is  “La  Araucana,”  written  by  Zfiniga  y Ercilla,  based 


Spanish  Colonial 
Scholarship 


SOCIETY  IN  COLONIAL  LATIN  AMERICA  127 


Spanish  Colonial 
Literature 


upon  his  personal  experiences  in  Chile.  This  poem,  though 
written  and  published  in  Spain  in  1569-1572,  served  as  the 
model  of  many  others  of  like  nature.  The  deeds  of  Cortes  were 
described  in  a long  poem  by  Antonio  de 
Saavedra,  while  the  conquest  of  Peru  served 
as  the  theme  of  other  long  poems.  The 
longest  poem  in  any  language  was  one  describing  the  whole 
of  Spanish  endeavors,  by  Juan  de  Castellanos.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  Mexico  produced  a real  poetical  genius  in  the 
person  of  Sor  Juana  Ines  de  la  Cruz,  a woman  whose  collected 
literary  works  fill  three  volumes.  The  eighteenth  century  was 
sterile  as  far  as  the  production  of  literature  was  concerned,  but 
taken  as  a whole  the  colonial  period  in  Latin  America  was 
much  more  fruitful,  in  a literary  sense,  than  was  the  colonial 
period  of  the  English  colonies. 

The  first  news  sheet  which  appeared  in  the  Spanish  colonies 
was  in  1594  at  Lima,  while  in  1620  occasional  sheets  began  to 
be  issued  in  Mexico.  A real  newspaper,  however,  did  not 
appear  in  the  Spanish  colonies  until  1722, 
when  a little  sheet,  miserably  printed,  on 
poor  paper,  began  to  appear  in  Mexico.  By  1810  five  prov- 
inces, besides  Mexico  and  Peru,  had  newspapers.  There  was 
no  newspaper  in  Chile  until  1812,  though  Bogota  boasted  of  a 
paper  as  early  as  1791. 

Brazil  lagged  considerably  behind  the  Spanish  colonies  both 
in  education,  literature,  and  scholarship.  There  were  some 
schools  conducted  by  the  monks  in  the  towns,  and  a few  Jesuit 
“colleges,”  though  there  were  no  universities  and  no  news- 
papers until  1808. 

Population 


Newspapers 


At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  population  of 
Latin  America  was  nearly  19,000,000.  Mexico  contained  some- 
thing near  6,000,000;  New  Granada,  1,500,000;  Venezuela,  800,- 
000;  Chile,  800,000;  La  Plata,  1,000,000;  Peru,  perhaps  3,000,- 
000  to  5,000,000;  and  Brazil  perhaps  3,000,000  to  5,000,000. 
About  half  the  population  of  La  Plata  were  Indians,  while  in 
Mexico  there  were  nearly  3,000,000  Indians,  2,000,000  half- 
breeds,  364,742  European-born  whites,  and  582,000  Creoles. 


128 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  four  largest  towns  in  Spanish  America  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  were  Mexico  City,  with  some  137,000  peo- 
ple; Quito,  with  70,000;  Buenos  Ayres,  with  60,000;  and  Lima, 
with  54,000. 

READING  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  treatment  of  several  phases  of  South  American  society 
during  the  colonial  period  may  be  found  in  South  America  on  the  Eve  of 
Emancipation,  by  Bernard  Moses,  Chapters  IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  and  VIII. 
In  a later  work  by  the  same  author,  Spanish  Dependencies  in  South  Amer- 
ica (2  Vols.),  there  are  also  a number  of  chapters  treating  of  the  church, 
education,  and  social  characteristics  of  colonial  Latin  America.  A recent 
paper  by  Bernard  Moses,  on  “The  Social  Revolution  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century  in  South  America,”  may  be  found  in  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation Reports,  1915,  pp.  163-170. 

Spain  in  America,  by  E.  G.  Bourne,  Chapters  XVII  and  XX  also 
treat  briefly  of  social  conditions  in  the  Spanish  colonies. 

Latin  America,  by  W.  R.  Shepherd,  Chapters  III,  V,  and  VI  deal  with 
“Social  Organization,”  “The  Church,”  and  “Intellectual  and  Artistic 
Status,”  respectively. 

The  Inquisition  in  the  Spanish  Dependencies,  by  H.  C.  Lea  (The  Mac- 
millan Company,  1908),  is  the  fullest  treatment  of  the  Inquisition  in  the 
colonies. 


CHAPTER  XI 


TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  SPANISH  RULE  IN 
AMERICA 

In  this  chapter  it  is  intended  to  summarize  the  chief  events 
in  the  political  history  of  Spanish  rule  in  America,  from  the 
period  of  colonization  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
This  story  covers  more  than  two  hundred  years,  and  yet  it  is 
possible  to  treat  it  in  one  chapter,  because  the  Spanish  govern- 
mental system,  once  established,  remained  in  operation,  with 
little  change,  to  the  end  of  the  Spanish  colonial  empire.  One 
viceroy  succeeded  another,  with  little  or  no  interruption  in  the 
orderly  affairs  of  government.  We  have  already  discussed  the 
administrative  system  established  by  Spain  in  her  colonies, 
and  it  only  remains  for  us,  in  this  chapter,  to  pass  in  rapid 
review  the  chief  political  events  in  the  conduct  of  that  well- 
organized  system. 


The  Viceroyalty  of 
New  Spain 


New  Spain 

During  the  colonial  period,  from  1535  to  1822,  there  were 
sixty-four  viceroys  who  ruled  in  Mexico.  Of  these  sixty-four 
chief  officials  a few  were  ecclesiastics,  two  held  office  for  two 
terms,  while  only  two  or  three  were  natives  of  Mexico.  As  a 
whole  Mexico  was  well  governed  during  all 
the  three  hundred  years  of  Spain’s  colonial 
rule.  Even  during  the  period  when  the  home 
government  was  becoming  weaker  and  weaker  the  government 
of  Mexico  was  becoming  more  firmly  established.  The  viceroy 
of  New  Spain  ruled  over  a vast  territory,  including  what  are 
now  the  Central  American  states,  and  the  territory  stretching 
northward,  including  Texas,  and  eventually  as  far  as  Van- 
couver Island. 

The  first  of  the  Mexican  viceroys  was  Antonio  de  Men- 
doza, who  arrived  in  America  in  the  fall  of  1535.  He  had  been 
appointed  by  Charles  V,  and  was  a man  of  high  character  and 

129 


130 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Early  Viceroys 


a keen  sense  of  justice.  During  his  administration,  which  lasted 
fifteen  years,  he  encouraged  education  and  the  founding  of 
schools,  and  as  a whole  the  country  prospered.  During  his 
administration  the  attempt  was  made  to  sup- 
press the  encomienda  system,  which  led  to 
considerable  disturbance.  Several  new  towns  were  founded 
and  several  distant  tribes  of  Indians  were  pacified.  In  1550 
Mendoza  left  Mexico  for  a similar  post  in  Peru,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  Luis  de  Velasco.  Under  this  administration  there 
was  a threatened  uprising  to  make  Cortes,  a son  of  the  Con- 
queror, king  of  New  Spain.  This  insurrection,  however,  was 
soon  suppressed  with  great  severity. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  problem  of 
protecting  the  treasure  fleets  from  the  European  enemies  of 
Spain  became  pressing.  In  1568  the  English  captain  John 
Hawkins  had  captured  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  and  four  years  later 
Drake  plundered  along  the  coast  of  the  Mexican  gulf,  and  in 
1578  made  his  most  famous  voyage  around  South  America 
and  up  the  Pacific  Coast,  plundering  and  burning  as  he  went. 
The  English,  Dutch,  1686  he  burned  Saint  Augustine,  Florida 

and  French  The  Dutch  also  were  active  in  the  work  of 

Buccaneers  plundering.  They  hovered  off  the  Gulf 

coast  with  their  fleets,  damaging  towns  and  taking  treasure 
ships.  The  French  likewise  took  a hand  at  plundering,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  send  warships  to  convoy  the  treasure 
fleets  of  Spain.  In  1635  the  English  captured  the  island  of 
Jamaica  and  thereafter  the  danger  to  Spanish  convoys  was 
much  increased.  During  all  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
ports  of  Yucatan  and  Central  America  were  frequently 
raided.  In  1683  even  Vera  Cruz  was  captured  and  was  held 
for  ten  days.  The  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713),  which  gave  the 
English  the  right  of  sending  a ship  of  five  hundred  tons  burden 
to  trade  with  Spanish  colonies,  greatly  facilitated  smuggling. 

The  chief  event  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in  the  history  of 
New  Spain,  was  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  This  was  ac- 
complished by  an  order  issued  by  King  Charles  III,  expelling 
them  from  all  of  his  dominions.  The  Jesuits  had  come  to 
Mexico  in  1572,  and  during  the  two  hundred  years  of  their 


TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  SPANISH  RULE  131 


labor  in  America  had  done  much  to  civilize  the  natives  and 
educate  the  whites.  The  members  of  the 
JeBuiu  order  were  arrested  en  masse  on  the  night 

of  June  26,  their  goods  sequestrated,  and 
they  themselves  deported  to  Habana,  from  whence  they  were 
taken  to  Cadiz.  The  work  which  they  had  carried  on  was 
in  a large  measure  taken  over  by  the  Franciscans  and  Do- 
minicans, who  pushed  on  into  upper  California.  They  founded 
many  towns,  such  as  San  Carlos,  San  Antonio,  San  Gabriel, 
in  which  the  mission  stations  were  made  the  centers  of  in- 
terest. The  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  was  much  resented  by 
the  Creoles  and  was  an  added  cause  for  their  discontent. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  minor  offi- 
cials, especially  the  corregidores,  and  the  alcaldes,  had  become 
very  corrupt,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  devise  reforms. 
Reforms  in  New  In  1786,  in  order  to  bring  about  better  gov- 
Spain  in  the  eminent,  the  country  was  divided  into  in- 

Eighteenth  Century  tendencies,  twelve  in  number,  whose  officials 
were  made  directly  subject  to  the  viceroy.  Among  the  best 
of  the  later  viceroys  was  Revillagigedo  (1789-1794),  a progres- 
sive ruler,  who  did  much  to  improve  the  administration  and 
increase  commerce.  In  this  administration  the  first  census  of 
New  Spain  was  taken. 

The  Viceroyalty  of  Peru 

After  the  period  of  turbulence  which  marked  the  downfall  of 
the  last  of  the  Pizarros  in  Peru,  Antonio  de  Mendoza,  who  had 
already  served  a successful  term  as  viceroy  at  Mexico,  became 
viceroy  at  Lima.  He  arrived  in  Peru  in  1551,  but  died  the 
next  year.  Peru  was  filled  with  adventurers,  and  rebellion  in 
the  early  years  was  never  far  away.  Bernard  Moses  estimates 
that  at  the  close  of  the  civil  wars  in  Peru  there  were  eight 
thousand  Spaniards,  of  whom  four  hundred  and  eighty-nine 
held  grants  of  land  and  Indians,  and  about 
one  thousand  others  occupied  official  posi- 
tions or  occupied  estates;  but  the  whole 
Spanish  population  desired  to  live  without  labor  (Bernard 
Moses,  Establishment  of  Spanish  Rule  in  America,  134).  It 


Early  Viceroys  in 
Peru 


132 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


was  with  difficulty  that  the  king  of  Spain  succeeded  in  getting 
anyone  to  accept  the  post  of  viceroy  after  the  death  of  An- 
tonio Mendoza,  but  finally  succeeded  in  inducing  Hurtado  de 
Mendoza  to  accept  the  difficult  post.  Hurtado  ruled  with  an 
iron  hand  for  six  years.  The  disturbing  elements  in  the  colony 
were  either  sent  out  of  the  country  or  executed.  He  also  did 
much  toward  pacifying  the  Indians,  seeing  that  they  had  good 
priests  appointed  in  their  villages,  and  promoted  the  founda- 
tion of  schools. 

Perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  early  viceroys  of  Peru 
was  Don  Francisco  de  Toledo,  who  was  the  fifth  to  hold 
that  office,  entering  Peru  in  1569  and  ruling  with  success  for 
thirteen  years.  He  gave  a minute  inspection  to  every  prov- 
ince within  the  country,  after  which  he  established  the  system 
of  local  government  which  prevailed  in  Peru  for  two  hundred 
years.  The  provisions  relating  to  local  government  are  con- 
The  viceroy,  tained  in  the  Libro  de  Tasas.  According  to 

Francisco  de  Toledo,  these  regulations,  the  territory  was  divided 
into  districts  called  corregimientos,  over 
which  was  placed  the  corregidor;  municipal  government  was 
definitely  established,  fixing  the  duties  of  the  several  officers, 
and  also  regulating  trade.  The  code  also  dealt  with  the  In- 
dians. It  determined  the  amount  of  tribute  to  be  paid  by 
them,  and  the  amount  of  service  they  were  to  render.  In 
addition  to  the  tribute,  according  to  these  regulations,  the 
Indians  were  also  to  render  personal  service  in  the  mines, 
manufactories,  and  on  the  farms,  which  was  known  as  the 
mita.  A priest  was  to  be  placed  in  each  village,  who  was  to 
teach  the  Indians  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  and  all  traces 
of  the  old  religion  were  to  be  destroyed.  Among  the  noted 
accomplishments  by  this  famous  viceroy  was  the  murder,  en- 
tirely unprovoked,  of  the  last  of  the  Incas.  This  occurred  in 
1571,  when  the  young  Inca  prince,  Tupac  Amaru,  was  seized 
and  beheaded  in  the  square  at  Cuzco. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  political 
affairs  of  Peru  had  fallen  into  a settled  order,  and  viceroys 
followed  one  another  without  disturbance.  From  1543,  when 
the  first  of  the  Peruvian  rulers  took  up  his  duties,  to  1801, 


TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  SPANISH  RULE  133 


Later  Viceroys 


thirty-five  viceroys  ruled  in  Peru.  During  the  early  period 
most  of  the  viceroys  had  belonged  to  the 
great  houses  of  Spain,  but  following  the 
reign  of  Philip  II  to  the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
a different  class  were  sent  out.  The  later  viceroys,  especially 
after  the  Bourbon  kings  came  to  the  Spanish  throne,  were 
more  practical  men,  such  as  Don  Manuel  Amat  and  Don 
Ambrosio  O’Higgins,  the  latter  having  been  a successful 
governor-general  of  Chile.  The  average  term  of  office  for  the 
viceroys  of  Peru  was  seven  and  a half  years. 

Until  the  establishment  of  the  viceroyalties  of  New  Granada 
and  Buenos  Ayres,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Peruvian  viceroy  ex- 
tended over  all  the  Spanish  possessions  in  South  America.  The 
captain-generals  of  Venezuela  and  of  Chile  were  subject  to  the 
authority  of  the  viceroy  at  Lima,  but  for  every  practical  purpose 
these  far-distant  provinces  were  independent  of  his  authority. 

The  outstanding  event  in  Peru  in  the  latter  eighteenth  cen- 
tury was  the  great  Indian  revolt  under  the  leadership  of  Tupac 
Amaru,  the  descendant  of  the  Inca  of  that  name,  whom  Fran- 
cisco de  Toledo  had  put  to  death  over  two  hundred  years 
before  in  the  square  of  the  ancient  Inca  capital.  Tupac  Amaru 
was  a well-educated  Indian,  and  had  been  recognized  by  the 
Spanish  authorities  as  the  descendant  of  the  Incas.  He  was 
cacique  of  a district  near  Cuzco,  and  did  everything  in  his 
power  to  ameliorate  the  deplorable  condition  of  his  people. 

For  years  he  exerted  himself  to  redress  the 
wrongs  of  the  Indians,  talking  to  priests  and 
officials  in  their  behalf,  but  it  was  all  to  no  avail.  The  evils 
went  on,  especially  those  practiced  by  the  corregidores,  the 
nature  of  which  we  have  already  described.  One  of  the  most 
merciless  of  these  corregidores  was  the  one  at  Tinta,  and  Tupac 
Amaru  determined  to  begin  his  revolt  by  punishing  this  cor- 
regidor.  This  was  successfully  accomplished,  and  the  corregi- 
dor  of  Tinta  was  arrested  and  executed  in  November,  1780. 
This  act  was  the  signal  for  the  gathering  of  the  Indians  to 
Tupac’s  banner,  and  they  arose  as  one  man  around  him.  Tupac 
then  advanced  toward  Cuzco,  where  in  the  early  part  of  1781 
an  indecisive  battle  was  fought. 


Tupac  Amaru 


134 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  whole  of  central  Peru  was  now  in  revolt,  and  the  Spanish 
officials  began  to  be  greatly  alarmed,  and  every  effort  was  made 
to  gather  troops  at  Lima.  The  viceroy  of  Peru  sent  a military 
force,  as  did  also  the  viceroy  at  Buenos  Ayres,  for  the  Indians 
about  La  Paz  were  also  in  revolt.  Finally,  a force  of  fifteen 
thousand  men,  made  up  of  Spanish  regulars,  mulatto  troops, 
and  Indians,  was  gathered  at  Cuzco  to  meet  the  revolting  Inca. 
The  Overthrow  and  At  ^is  juncture  Tupac  Amaru  wrote  to 
capture  of  Tupac  Areche,  the  official  sent  from  Lima,  propos- 
ing to  arbitrate,  but  the  answer  of  this 
official  was  a brutal  refusal  to  enter  into  negotiations,  and 
promising  the  most  horrible  vengeance  upon  the  Inca.  There 
was  nothing  left  now  for  Tupac  but  to  fight  to  the  bitter  end. 
In  March  the  Inca  took  up  his  position  near  the  village  of 
Checacape,  where  a battle  was  fought,  which  proved  disas- 
trous to  the  Inca’s  forces.  Tupac  Amaru  fled  with  his  family, 
hoping  to  rally  his  army.  He  was  betrayed,  however,  by  one 
of  his  officers  and  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards, 
who  took  him  to  Cuzco  to  await  his  awful  fate.  The  Spanish 
general  hung  sixty-seven  Indians  at  Tinta,  stuck  their  heads 
on  poles,  and  placed  them  beside  the  roadway  as  a warning 
to  the  revolting  Indians. 

The  Spanish  officials  now  proceeded  to  carry  out  the  cruel 
sentence  upon  the  Inca  and  his  family.  On  May  15,  1781,  the 
sentence  was  published.  The  Inca  was  to  have  his  tongue  cut 
out;  then  was  to  be  tom  to  pieces  by  horses  attached  to  his 
limbs  and  driven  in  different  directions;  then  his  body  was  to 
be  burnt,  and  his  head  and  limbs  stuck  upon  poles,  to  be  set 
up  in  different  towns  which  had  been  loyal  to  his  cause.  This 
horrible  sentence  was  literally  carried  out  on 
May  18,  while  the  family  of  the  Inca  was 
compelled  to  witness  the  terrible  scene.  This 
event,  however,  did  not  stop  the  revolt,  for  fighting  continued 
for  many  months  under  the  command  of  Diego  Tupac  Amaru, 
the  Inca’s  cousin.  The  town  of  Sorata  was  besieged  by  the 
Indians,  and  finally  taken  by  an  ingenious  plan  of  the  Indian 
commander,  who  turned  the  waters  of  a mountain  stream 
against  the  earthworks  protecting  the  town.  The  inhabitants 


The  Execution  of 
Tupac  Amaru 


TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  SPANISH  RULE  135 


of  Sorata  were  massacred,  the  clergy  alone  being  allowed  to 
escape.  La  Paz  was  besieged  for  one  hundred  and  nine  days 
by  40,000  Indians,  but  was  finally  relieved  by  General  Flores, 
with  troops  from  Buenos  Ayres,  only  to  be  besieged  again  from 
.August  to  October.  Diego  Tupac  Amaru  finally,  on  promise 
of  pardon  by  the  Spanish  officials,  disbanded  his  forces  and 
returned  to  his  home.  But  no  sooner  was  this  done  than  the 
perfidious  officials  broke  their  promises,  and  Diego  and  all  his 
relatives  were  put  to  death,  and  an  effort  was  made  to  ex- 
terminate every  vestige  of  the  Inca  lineage.  Altogether  this 
revolt  cost  the  lives  of  eighty  thousand  victims. 

But  the  revolt  and  the  death  of  the  Inca  was  not  in  vain. 
The  viceroy  of  Peru  was  called  upon  for  a report  as  to  the 
causes  of  the  revolt,  and  he  replied  by  laying  the  blame  upon 
the  misery  caused  by  the  mita,  and  the  exactions  of  the  priests, 
and  proposed  certain  remedies.  There  followed  now  a series 
of  excellent  viceroys,  who  exerted  all  their  influence  and  power 
toward  relieving  the  situation.  Under  the  viceroyalty  of  Don 
Theodoro  de  Croix  (1784-1790)  the  office  of  corregidor  was 
abolished,  and  Peru  was  divided  into  seven  large  provinces 
called  intendencias,  over  each  of  which  was  placed  an  in- 
tendent,  directly  subject  to  the  viceroy.  The 
Governm^/of  Peru  intendancies  were  in  turn  divided  into  parti- 
das,  each  of  which  was  under  a subdelegate, 
subject  to  the  intendent.  Following  De  Croix  came  Admiral  de 
Taboada,  who  has  been  called  the  best  and  most  enlightened 
of  the  viceroys.  He  was  a lover  of  letters  and  a promoter  of 
enlightened  thought.  Under  his  patronage  letters  and  learn- 
ing flourished  at  Lima.  Taboada  was  followed  by  a very 
remarkable  man,  Ambrose  O’Higgins.  He  was  an  Irishman, 
who  as  a boy  had  come  out  to  Peru,  and  through  sheer 
talent  and  tact  succeeded  in  becoming  captain-general  of 
Chile  (1788-1796)  and  later  viceroy  of  Peru  (1796-1800). 
The  next  viceroy,  Aviles  (1800-1806),  was  a man  of  very 
different  character,  who  promoted  no  useful  measure,  while 
under  his  successor,  Fernando  Abascal,  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment began  which  was  finally  to  overthrow  the  colonial  power 
of  Spain. 


136 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Chile 

From  the  beginning  Chile  was  largely  independent  of  Peru, 
though  it  remained  to  the  end  of  the  colonial  period  a part  of 
the  viceroyalty.  For  the  most  part,  the  country  was  ruled  by  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  Spanish  crown,  though  in  1567  the 
royal  audiencia  was  established,  with  Don  Melchor  de  Bravo 
as  president,  civil  governor,  and  military  commander.  This 
system  of  government,  however,  lasted  only  to  1575,  when  a 
special  commissioner  was  appointed  to  reorganize  the  govern- 
ment under  a captain  general,  and  this  system  remained  in 
operation  to  the  close  of  the  period.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
the  captain-general  of  Chile  took  on  increased 
importance,  from  the  custom  of  appointing 
him,  at  the  close  of  his  term  of  office,  to  a 
more  important  post,  often  to  that  of  the  viceroy  of  Peru.  The 
captaincy-general  for  the  purpose  of  administration  was  di- 
vided into  thirteen  provinces,  “which  were  governed  by  officers 
known  at  different  times  as  corregidores,  prefects,  and  sub- 
delegates. These  officials  exercised  both  civil  and  military 
functions,  and  served  without  other  compensation  than  the 
fees  of  their  office.”  It  was  always  necessary  to  maintain  a 
large  military  force  in  Chile,  due  to  the  warlike  Indians.  To- 
ward the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  nearly  two  thousand 
regular  troops  were  maintained,  besides  the  militia.  The  ex- 
pense of  maintaining  this  military  force  was  largely  met  from 
the  funds  of  the  viceroyalty  at  Lima. 


The  Government  of 
Chile 


New  Granada 

Until  1716  the  territory  included  in  the  present  states  of 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador  was  subject  to  the  viceroy 
at  Peru,  but  in  that  year  the  viceroyalty  of  New  Granada  was 
created,  with  the  capital  at  Bogota.  Previous  to  this  the  terri- 
tory, now  included  in  the  present  Republic  of  Colombia,  was 
ruled  by  a long  series  of  governors,  who  came  and  went  without 
producing  any  change  in  the  government.  The  first  viceroy  of 
New  Granada  was  Don  Sebastian  de  Eslaba,  and  his  adminis- 
tration is  marked  by  the  repelling  of  an  attack  of  the  English 
upon  Porto  Bello.  Besides  this  notable  achievement  the  rule  of 


TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  SPANISH  RULE  137 


Eslaba  is  also  noted  for  the  advancement  made  in  internal  im- 
provements of  the  country,  such  as  the  con- 
New  GranTda'7  °f  struction  of  roads,  building  of  bridges,  and  the 
development  of  manufacturing.  During  the 
closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  much  internal 
disturbance,  due  to  certain  financial  reforms  instituted  by  the 
government,  and  there  were  even  threats  to  throw  off  allegiance 
to  the  king  of  Spain.  This  danger,  however,  was  allayed 
through  the  intervention  of  Archbishop  Gorgora,  who  in  rec- 
ognition of  this  service  was  appointed  viceroy.  His  adminis- 
tration, noted  for  his  encouragement  of  science,  and  other  wise 
measures,  left  the  country  in  a condition  of  peace  and  pros- 
perity. 

Venezuela 


In  the  interests  of  better  administration  Venezuela  was  set 
apart  under  a captain-general  in  1777.  For  every  practical 
purpose  the  governor-general  was  independent  of  the  viceroy 
at  Bogota.  He  was  the  head  of  the  military,  president  of  the 
audiencia,  as  well  as  the  chief  executive  officer.  He  received  a 
salary  of  $9,000  a year,  besides  the  fees  which  came  to  him  as 
judge.  At  the  head  of  the  financial  administration  of  the 
captaincy-general  was  the  intendent,  who  was  given  a large 
measure  of  independence  in  the  conduct  of  his  important 
office. 

Rio  de  La  Plata 


From  the  foundation  of  Spanish  colonies  upon  the  Rio  de  La 
Plata  until  1776  the  whole  region  was  included  in  the  vice- 
royalty of  Peru.  In  1614  the  territory  had  been  divided  into 
two  provinces,  with  Buenos  Ayres  the  capital  of  one,  and 
Asuncion  the  capital  of  the  other.  There  were  no  mines,  and 
no  direct  trade  with  Spain  in  Rio  de  La  Plata,  so  there  were  few 
attractions,  and  population  increased  but  slowly.  Before  the 
separation  of  the  territory  into  two  provinces  Buenos  Ayres 
had  outgrown  Asuncion,  and  if  there  had  been  no  restrictions 
upon  direct  trade  with  Spain  the  city  at  the  mouth  of  the  great 
river  would  have  grown  much  more  rapidly;  but  as  it  was, 


138 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Buenos  Ayres  had  to  look  to  Lima  for  her  wares.  The  expense 
of  transporting  goods  across  the  continent 
coDtrab^Trad^6  stimulated  the  Portuguese  to  carry  on  con- 
traband trade,  for,  bringing  their  goods  di- 
rectly from  Europe  they  could  smuggle  them  across  the  river 
into  the  Spanish  colonies  at  a small  part  of  the  price  necessary 
if  the  goods  were  brought  by  way  of  Lima.  So  successful  was 
this  trade  that  even  Lima  merchants  began  the  practice  of 
coming  to  Buenos  Ayres  to  make  their  purchases,  rather  than 
go  to  the  Fair  at  Porto  Bello.  To  further  this  trade  the  Portu- 
guese began  to  push  southward,  along  the  Brazilian  coast,  and 
established  a fort,  Colonia,  across  the  Rio  de  La  Plata  from 
Buenos  Ayres.  The  founding  of  this  post  was  resented  by  the 
population  of  the  Spanish  province,  and  an  expedition  was 
made  against  it,  which  succeeded  in  capturing  the  place.  This, 
however,  did  not  settle  the  matter,  and  for  many  years  it  was 
the  cause  of  dispute  between  not  only  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese in  America  but  also  between  the  home  governments. 

The  immense  distance  from  Lima  and  the  increasing  im- 
portance of  Buenos  Ayres  led  the  Spanish  colonial  authorities 
to  raise  the  latter  city  to  the  dignity  of  a viceroyalty  (1776). 

The  territory  of  the  new  viceroyalty  included 
a^eroya?tyS  Made  besides  the  old  provinces  of  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Paraguay,  the  presidency  of  Charcas 
(modem  Bolivia),  and  the  province  of  Cuyo,  which  had  for- 
merly been  a part  of  Chile.  From  1776  to  1810  eleven  viceroys 
ruled  at  Buenos  Ayres,  the  first  one  being  Antonio  de  Ceballos 
and  the  last  Hidalgo  de  Cisneros. 


READING  REFERENCES 

The  best  general  narrative  of  the  History  of  Colonial  South  America  is 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  South  America  (1884),  by  R.  G.  Watson. 

Brief  accounts,  more  serviceable  for  class  use,  are  found  in  Winsor, 
Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  Vol.  VIII,  Chapters  IV  and  V. 
Chapter  IV,  on  “Spanish  North  America,”  is  by  Justin  Winsor,  while 
Chapter  V,  on  “Colonial  History  of  South  America,”  is  by  C.  R.  Mark- 
ham. 

Spanish  Dependencies  in  South  America  (2  Vols.,  1914),  by  Bernard 
Moses,  treats  of  the  period,  but  is  not  a general  account,  but,  rather,  a 


TWO  HUNDRED  YEARS  OF  SPANISH  RULE  139 


series  of  separate  studies.  The  two  earlier  books  by  the  same  author, 
The  Establishment  of  Spanish  Rule  in  America,  and  South  America  on  the 
Eve  of  Emancipation,  contain  chapters  which  will  be  found  valuable. 

A good  popular  account  of  the  colonial  period  for  South  America  will 
also  be  found  in  South  American  Republics,  by  Thomas  C.  Dawson  (1906, 
2 Vols.). 

Two  books  relating  to  the  founding  of  the  Spanish  Empire  in  North 
America  are  The  Founding  of  Spanish  California;  The  Northwest  Expan- 
sion of  New  Spain,  1687-1783,  by  Charles  Edward  Chapman  (Macmillan, 
1916),  and  The  Spanish  Settlements  in  the  United  States,  by  Woodbury 
Lowery,  Vol.  I,  1513-1561;  Vol.  II,  1562-1574  (G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons, 
1911). 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  WARS 
FOR  INDEPENDENCE 

The  causes  of  the  South  American  wars  for  independence 
were  far  different  from  those  which  resulted  in  the  rebellion  of 
England’s  thirteen  American  colonies.  As  we  survey  the  gov- 
ernment of  colonial  Latin  America  in  the  light  of  twentieth- 
century  democracy,  we  wonder  why  the  Spanish  colonists, 
badly  governed  and  heavily  taxed  for  the  benefit  of  the  mother 
country  as  they  were,  and  in  every  way  exploited,  did  not  rebel 
long  before  they  did.  Yet  still  more  strange  to  the  North 
American  is  the  fact  that  the  immediate  causes  of  the  revolu- 
tions in  South  America  did  not  grow  out  of  the  evil  and  despotic 
government  which  was  imposed  upon  them.  Mr.  Bryce  says  it 
was  Napoleon  who  brought  about  South  American  independ- 
ence. The  general  causes  of  disaffection,  however,  did  grow 
out  of  conditions  which  had  long  existed,  and  with  which  we 
are  already  familiar. 

General  Causes  of  Disaffection 
The  Spanish  colonist  was  supposed  to  enjoy  the  same  con- 
stitutional rights  as  a citizen  of  Spain,  but  in  many  instances 
this  was  far  from  the  fact.  The  government,  at  best,  was 
extremely  despotic,  but  when  a despotic  government  is  carried 
on  by  inefficient  officials  the  despotism  becomes  unbearable, 
and  this  was  the  case  in  the  Spanish  colonies.  The  Inquisition 
which  was  established  in  the  colonies  was  an 

The  Nature  of  T . 

Spanish  Colonial  institution  hated  by  everyone.  Its  income 
Government  a Cause  depended  upon  the  number  of  confiscations 
made,  and  very  naturally,  under  these  con- 
ditions, grave  injustices  were  often  perpetrated.  So  grave  was 
the  condition  of  things  in  1780,  due  to  general  bad  government, 
that  serious  revolts  were  threatened.  We  have  already  noticed 
the  famous  revolt  of  Tupac  Amaru,  which  we  remember  grew 

140 


CAUSES  OF  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE  141 


out  of  the  corrupt  government,  especially  of  the  corregidores. 
In  the  next  year,  1781,  serious  trouble  also  threatened  in  New 
Granada.  Here  the  revolutionists  soon  had  more  than  fifteen 
thousand  men  under  arms  and  marched  against  Bogota,  crying, 
“Long  five  the  king,  but  death  to  bad  governors.”  Three  years 
later  two  agents  of  these  revolutionists  visited  England  in  the 
hope  of  getting  arms  and  other  support. 

These  revolts,  coming  at  the  same  time  as  the  successful 
uprising  of  the  English  colonies  in  North  America,  made  the 
Spanish  government  very  apprehensive,  and  an  attempt  was 
made  at  governmental  reform,  though  what  was  done  in  this 
direction  proved  ineffectual.  Spain  delayed  giving  help  to  the 
revolting  English  colonies,  although  urged  to  do  so  by  her  ally 
France,  because  she  feared  the  effect  upon  her  own  colonies. 
When  she  did  give  aid  to  the  American  colonies,  in  1779,  she 
was  at  the  same  time  trying  to  keep  out  liberal  ideas  from  her 
own  colonies  by  instituting  a crusade  against  suspected  books, 
more  rigidly  restricting  education,  and  by  greatly  increasing 
political  imprisonments. 

Added  to  the  bad  government  of  the  Spanish  colonies  were 
her  exasperating  economic  policies.  It  is  true  that  after  1778 
a more  liberal  policy  was  instituted,  but  even  after  this  at- 
„ . , „ tempted  economic  reform  a large  proportion 

Spain’s  Bad  Economic 

Policies,  Another  of  the  commercial  transactions  of  the  colonies 
D^w^ectionUSe  were  still  illegal.  We  have  already  given  an 

account  of  the  way  Spain  exploited  her  col- 
onies, through  taxation  of  all  kinds,  through  the  granting  of 
monopolies,  the  selling  of  offices,  and  through  the  exactions  of  a 
corrupt  clergy.  All  these  causes  contributed  to  the  general 
disaffection.  There  was  also  a growing  jealousy,  already  of 
long  standing,  between  the  Spaniards  of  European  birth  and 
the  Creoles.  Practically  all  the  officers  appointed  by  the  king 
were  Spaniards,  while  the  Creoles  had  little  part  in  directing 
the  affairs  of  either  church  or  state.  Down  to  the  year  1810 
Jealousy  Between  there  Were  160  vicer0yS,  and  588  Captaffi- 
European-Bom  generals,  governors,  and  presidents  of  audi- 

Spawards  and  Creoles  encjag>  an(J  QUt  0f  this  large  number  of  officials 

only  eighteen  had  been  natives  of  the  colonies.  This  becomes 


142 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


very  significant  when  we  come  to  study  the  revolutions  them- 
selves, for  every  great  outstanding  revolutionary  leader  was  a 
Creole. 

Immediate  Causes  of  the  Revolutions 


The  American  Revo- 
lution and  Francisco 
de  Miranda 

American  cities, 
the  belief  that 


Among  the  immediate  causes  of  the  Latin  American  wars  for 
independence  may  be  given  the  successful  Revolution  of  Eng- 
land’s colonies  in  America.  The  chief  connecting  link  between 
the  two  revolutions  was  Francisco  Miranda.  Miranda  was  a 
native  of  Caracas,  born  in  1756.  He  came  to  the  West  Indies, 
as  an  officer  in  a Spanish  expedition,  in  1781, 
took  part  in  a campaign  against  Pensacola, 
Florida,  and  in  1783  visited  a number  of 
His  experience  in  North  America  led  him  to 
Spanish  America  could  achieve  a like  inde- 
pendence, and  henceforth  he  devoted  his  life  to  the  carrying 
out  of  this  thought.  In  spite  of  all  precautions  which  the 
Spanish  government  took  to  keep  out  liberal  ideas,  during  and 
following  the  American  revolution,  nevertheless  doctrines  of 
freedom  began  to  find  their  way  into  the  very  center  of 
Spanish  power  in  America.  Among  those  who  were  preaching 
Liberal  ideas  Find  these  new  doctrines  were  the  Bishop  of 
Their  way  into  Arequipa  and  the  rector  of  the  College  of 

Spanish  America  San  Carlos.  Many  of  the  clergy  likewise 
joined  in  this  movement  and  secret  societies  and  clubs  were 
formed  where  liberal  ideas  were  discussed  and  plans  laid  to 
convert  others  to  their  cause.  As  a whole,  however,  the 
Spanish  colonies  were  loyal  to  the  Spanish  crown  up  to  the 
very  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

A more  important  cause  of  the  decline  of  Spanish  power  in 
America  was  the  long  commercial  struggle  between  England 
and  Spain  which  culminated  in  the  early  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  struggle  began  in  the  latter  quarter  of 
The  English  the  sixteenth  century  when  Hawkins  and 

Commercial  interests  Drake  led  a long  line  of  buccaneers  to  prey 
m south  America  upon  the  Spanish  treasure  fleets.  In  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  English  captured  Ja- 
maica, after  which  they  proceeded  to  take  over  a number  of 
the  smaller  West  Indies.  Spain  had  been  little  interested  in 


CAUSES  OF  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE  143 


the  small  islands  and  they  were  left  unoccupied  and  unclaimed 
until  the  Dutch,  English,  and  French  took  them  over.  With 
these  islands  as  a center,  English  activities  off  the  coasts  of 
Spanish  America  greatly  increased,  and  all  during  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  they  became  a greater  and 
greater  menace  to  the  Spanish  dominions. 

At  the  close  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (1701- 
1713)  England  gained  the  contract  to  supply  the  Spanish  Indies 
with  slaves  and  also  a limited  right  to  trade  with  the  Spanish 
colonies.  This  was  the  first  lawful  breach  in  the  Spanish  trade 
monopoly,  and  with  this  as  an  entering  wedge  the  English 
England  and  Spain  in  grea%  increased  their  activities.  In  1739 
the  seventeenth  and  England  and  Spain  were  again  at  war  and 
Eighteenth  Centuries  English  attempted  to  conquer  the  island 

of  Cuba.  Again  in  the  Seven  Years’  War  (1756-63)  Spain  and 
England  renewed  the  struggle  and  the  British  occupied  Habana 
and  Manila,  while  English  merchants  were  busy  supplying  the 
Spanish  colonists  with  duty-free  merchandise.  In  1779  Spain 
joined  her  ally  France  with  the  American  colonies  of  England 
against  her  old  enemy,  and  this  time  Spain  regained  Florida, 
which  England  had  taken  from  her  in  1763.  Again  during  the 
Napoleon  wars  England  and  Spain  once  more  stood  face  to 
face  as  enemies.  Again  England  proceeded  to  attack  Spain’s 
possessions  and  to  confiscate  and  capture  Spanish  ships. 

As  a part  of  England’s  campaign  against  France  there  was 
dispatched  in  the  spring  of  1806  an  expedition  of  sixteen  hun- 
dred men  against  Buenos  Ayres,  for  Spain  had  made  an  alliance 
with  Napoleon  in  1795.  The  commander  of  this  expedition 
had  the  year  previous  taken  Cape  Colony,  in  South  Africa, 
from  the  Dutch.  The  English  landed  without  opposition  and 
marched  toward  Buenos  Ayres,  the  Spanish  viceroy  fleeing  to 
Cordoba.  On  taking  the  city  the  English  commander  declared 
himself  governor.  For  years  the  English  had  been  desirous  of 
gaining  a foothold  in  South  America,  and  this  seemed  the 
opportunity  they  had  long  hoped  for.  At 
BuLosA^es^Tsoe6  first  ttie  people  of  Buenos  Ayres  acquiesced 
in  the  British  occupation,  and  Beresford,  the 
English  commander,  exacted  from  all  the  officials,  without 


144 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


difficulty,  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  British  crown.  Within 
a few  weeks,  however,  the  English  were  overpowered  by  the 
townspeople  of  Buenos  Ayres,  aided  by  a force  which  had  been 
organized  by  a French  naval  officer,  Liniers,  in  the  employ  of 
the  Spanish  at  Montevideo.  There  was  some  hard  fighting  in 
the  streets  of  Buenos  Ayres,  but  the  English  were  compelled  to 
surrender,  and  Liniers,  now  a popular  idol,  was  appointed 
viceroy.  This  victory,  which  the  people  of  Buenos  Ayres  had 
achieved  without  help  from  Spain,  greatly  aroused  their  national 
and  race  pride. 

A few  months  after  these  occurrences  another  and  more  for- 
midable British  expedition,  consisting  of  four  thousand  men 
under  General  Whitelocke,  made  an  attack  upon  the  La  Plata. 
The  English  landed  this  time  in  Uruguay,  and  took  Montevideo 
by  assault.  With  Montevideo  as  a base,  the  English  now  made 
an  attack  upon  Buenos  Ayres.  The  Argentines  met  the  Eng- 
lish outside  the  city,  but  after  some  severe  fighting  they  were 
compelled  to  retire,  the  English  following  them  into  the  town. 
The  second  English  This  proved  foolish  tactics  on  the  part  of  the 
Attack  Upon  Buenos  English,  for  as  they  marched  through  the 
narrow  streets  of  the  Spanish  town  the  na- 
tives rained  down  upon  them  from  the  housetops  stones  and 
bullets,  so  that  by  the  time  they  reached  the  main  square 
their  forces  were  greatly  demoralized.  Here  the  British  were 
met  by  the  Argentines,  drawn  up  behind  breastworks.  For 
two  days  the  fighting  raged,  but  finally  the  British  were  com- 
pelled to  ask  for  terms.  Again  the  people  of  Argentina  had 
defended  themselves  successfully.  They  had  little  dreamed  of 
such  military  prowess,  and  now  that  it  was  revealed  beyond 
any  doubt,  their  local  pride  was  greatly  stimulated.  The 
people  of  Buenos  Ayres,  while  not  desiring  to  be  ruled 
by  the  English,  were  willing  to  trade  with  them,  and  Eng- 
lish commercial  interests  in  the  La  Plata  were  greatly  stimu- 
lated. 

Previous  to  the  events  just  described  the  English  had  cap- 
tured the  island  of  Trinidad,  which  gave  English  commercial 
interests  a base  at  the  mouth  of  the  great  river  Orinoco.  This 
also  brought  Englishmen  and  English  interests  very  near  the 


CAUSES  OF  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE  145 


Napoleon  Seizes  the 
Crown  of  Spain 


north  coast  of  South  America.  This  close  proximity  of  the 
English  to  the  Spanish  colonies  could  not  fail 
ofhTriridad^  to  greatly  influence  the  Creole  element.  When 

the  wars  for  independence  began,  the  revolu- 
tionists found  these  Englishmen  ready  with  their  help  and 
encouragement. 

Of  the  immediate  causes  of  the  South  American  wars  for 
independence  perhaps  none  are  so  important  as  the  influence 
of  the  Napoleon  wars.  After  conquering  Prussia  in  1806  and 
making  peace  with  Russia  in  1807,  Napoleon  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  Portugal  and  Spain.  At  this  time  the  king  of  Spain 
was  Charles  IV,  a weak  and  corrupt  monarch, 
who  had  in  1795  signed  a peace  with  Napo- 
leon and  a little  later  became  the  active  ally 
of  the  French.  Napoleon  by  1807  had  become  anxious  to  add 
Spain  to  his  empire  and  began  to  lay  plans  to  accomplish  that 
end.  Charles  IV  and  his  son,  Ferdinand,  the  heir  to  the  throne, 
had  quarreled,  and  Napoleon  was  called  in  to  settle  their  dif- 
ferences. Calling  these  two  “royal  clowns”  to  Bayonne,  just 
across  the  border,  Napoleon  proceeded  to  compel  them  to 
abdicate  their  throne,  and  their  royal  rights  were  then  assumed 
by  the  wily  arbiter  (May,  1808).  Spain  was  thereupon  given 
to  the  brother  of  Bonaparte,  Joseph,  who  at  once  surrendered 
his  kingdom  of  Naples  to  become  the  successor  of  the  Bourbons 
upon  the  throne  of  Spain. 

When  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  king  in  the  Latin  - 
American  capitals  the  colonists  refused  to  recognize  the  usurper, 
and  everywhere  the  news  was  received  with  cries  of  “Viva 
Fernando  Septimo.”  One  of  the  first  acts  of  Joseph  Bonaparte 
as  king  of  Spain  was  to  confirm  all  the  governors  and  other 
royal  officials  in  the  colonies.  This  at  once  cast  suspicion  upon 
The  Colonies  Refuse  these  officials,  as  being  agents  of  the  usurping 
to  Recognize  Joseph  king.  An  illustration  of  the  feeling  of  the 

Bonaparte  as  King  populace  at  this  time  is  afforded  by  occur- 

rences at  Caracas.  Here  a British  frigate  arrived  announcing 
an  Anglo-Spanish  alliance  against  Napoleon,  just  after  a French 
vessel  arrived  with  the  news  of  the  accession  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte to  the  Spanish  throne.  The  people  received  the  Englishmen 


146 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


with  enthusiasm,  while  the  Spanish  governor  officially  received 
the  French  officials.  What  occurred  in  Caracas  took  place  in 
practically  all  Latin- American  capitals.  The  people  were  every- 
where opposed  to  French  control  in  Spain  and  were  everywhere 
suspicious  of  their  own  local  colonial  officials,  and  a condition 
of  uncertainty  was  thus  produced  throughout  the  entire  Span- 
ish colonial  empire. 

The  next  scene  in  this  drama,  which  naturally  followed  upon 
the  situation  already  described,  was  the  overthrow  of  the 
colonial  officials  and  the  setting  up  of  independent  govern- 
ments. Thus  in  August,  1809,  the  citizens  of  Quito  organized 
a sovereign  junta,  deposed  the  governor,  and  assumed  the 
authority  of  the  government.  Similar  things  had  already  oc- 
curred in  Spain,  for  juntas  had  been  consti- 

Organization  of  Juntas  . 

in  Spain  and  the  tuted  at  various  centers,  such  as  Seville  and 
colonies  in  Opposition  Asturias,  and  a national  resistance  had  been 
to  Joseph  Bonaparte  organjzed  against  the  French.  These  colonial 

juntas  did  not  claim  independence  of  Spain,  nor  did  the  central 
junta  in  Spain  intend  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  monarchy, 
but  these  governments  both  in  the  colonies  and  in  Spain  pro- 
fessed loyalty  to  Ferdinand  VII,  the  deposed  monarch,  and 
professed  to  be  upholding  his  royal  authority.  Thus  between 
April  and  July,  1810,  “all  over  South  America  the  principal 
municipalities  . . . formed  juntas  to  preserve  the  authority  of 
Ferdinand.”  The  chief  juntas  thus  formed  were  at  Bogota, 
Cartagena,  Caracas,  Santiago  de  Chile,  and  Buenos  Ayres. 

This  was  the  situation  out  of  which  came  Latin-American 
independence.  These  juntas,  at  first  upholding  the  authority 
of  the  deposed  king,  proclaimed  that  they  were  fighting  for  his 
restoration.  Thus  through  several  years  this  strange  condition 
prevailed,  while  in  the  meantime  the  people  of  Latin  America 
were  getting  their  first  taste  of  self-government.  But  “the 
theory  of  allegiance  to  a dethroned  and  captive  king,  although 
sincerely  held  by  the  great  majority,  could  not  long  survive,” 
and  in  the  end,  through  a perfectly  natural  evolution,  the  royal 
authority  decreased.  Gradually  real  revolutionary  govern- 
ments everywhere  came  into  existence  with  the  avowed  inten- 
tion of  achieving  independence  of  Spanish  authority. 


CAUSES  OF  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE  147 


READING  REFERENCES 

South  America  on  the  Eve  of  Emancipation,  by  Bernard  Moses,  contains 
several  chapters  which  throw  light  upon  the  causes  of  the  wars. 

In  Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol.  X,  Chapters  IX  and  X,  brief  sum- 
maries of  the  causes  of  the  wars  may  be  found. 

History  of  the  South  American  Republics,  by  Thomas  C.  Dawson  (G.  P. 
Putnam’s  Sons),  treats  the  revolutionary  movement  separately,  noting 
the  revolution  in  each  Republic,  and  in  each  instance  summarizing  the 
causes. 

For  the  bearing  of  the  European  Wars  of  Napoleon  upon  Latin  Amer- 
ica, Modem  European  History,  by  Charles  Downer  Hazen  (Henry  Holt  & 
Co.,  1916),  contains  an  adequate  account. 

The  best  summary  of  the  influence  of  the  American  Revolution  upon 
Latin  America  is  Inter- American  Acquaintances,  by  C.  L.  Chandler  (2d 
Ed.,  1917),  Chapters  I and  II. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


Francisco  Miranda 


The  Northern  Movement 

To  Venezuela  belongs  the  honor  of  starting  the  series  of 
revolts  which  culminated  in  freeing  the  colonies  of  Central 
and  South  America  from  the  Spanish  yoke.  Venezuela  was  an 
agricultural  colony,  and  was  therefore  one  of  the  most  neglected 
of  the  Spanish  possessions.  The  Spanish  officials  were  few, 
and  the  number  of  Spanish  residents  was  likewise  small.  Vene- 
zuela was  also  much  exposed  to  the  influence  of  both  England 
and  the  United  States  through  trade  with 
Jamaica,  Trinidad,  and  Santo  Domingo,  once 
the  chief  colony  of  Spain,  “but  now  emerging  from  French 
rule  into  a stormy  independence.”  In  1797  a conspiracy 
had  been  organized  at  La  Guaira,  a Venezuelan  port,  but  it 
obtained  little  support  and  had  been  quickly  overcome.  The 
one  man  chiefly  responsible  for  Venezuela’s  early  revolt 
was  Francisco  Miranda,  of  whose  early  career  we  have 
already  spoken.  After  the  close  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion he  began  at  once  to  lay  plans  for  the  independence 
of  his  own  country.  Those  early  plans,  however,  came  to 
naught. 

From  the  States  he  went  to  England,  and  there  submitted 
his  plans  to  the  younger  Pitt,  who  at  once  promised  him  sup- 
port in  case  of  war.  From  England  he  now  went  to  France, 
where  the  great  Revolution  was  under  way,  and  when  the 
Revolutionary  army  was  organized  he  became  an  officer.  Be- 
Miranda  Seeks  Help  coming  involved  in  the  party  struggles,  he 
bom  England  and  fell  under  suspicion,  was  thrown  into  prison, 
the  united  states  and  oniy  escaped  through  the  death  of  Ro- 
bespierre. Again  he  turned  to  England  and  America  for  aid. 
He  received  encouragement  at  the  time  from  Rufus  King,  the 
American  minister  to  England,  and  from  Pitt.  In  1805  he 
sailed  for  the  United  States,  where  Jefferson  received  him,  and 

148 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


149 


The  Expedition  of 
1806 


during  a stay  of  fourteen  days  at  the  capital  dined  twice  with 
the  President.  Miranda’s  hopes  of  obtaining  the  help  of  the 
United  States  were  blasted,  however,  when  he  was  finally  in- 
formed that  the  Washington  government  would  not  officially 
aid  him. 

Immediately  on  receiving  this  message  Miranda  began 
preparations  for  an  expedition  against  Caracas.  Two  vessels 
were  fitted  out  in  New  York  and  a number  of  Americans  en- 
listed. In  January  the  expedition  sailed,  going  first  to  Santo 
Domingo,  and  from  there  to  Venezuela. 
Aided  by  Sir  Thomas  Cochran,  an  English 
admiral,  and  two  Americans,  an  attempt  was 
made  on  Puerto  Cabello,  but  two  of  the  vessels  were  taken,  a 
number  of  the  Americans  were  captured  and  later  executed  by 
the  Spanish  authorities,  while  Miranda  was  forced  to  flee  to 
Jamaica.  A month  later  another  attempt  was  made  to  land  a 
force  at  Coro,  but  after  a successful  landing  they  were  again 
forced  to  withdraw.  The  population  had  expressed  little  in- 
terest in  these  endeavors,  for  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe  for  a 
successful  revolution. 

The  influence  which  finally  led  the  Creoles  of  Venezuela  to 
seek  independence  was  the  arrival  of  the  French  commissioners 
announcing  the  ascension  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  to  the  throne 
of  Spain.  Throughout  all  of  1809  agitation  was  carried  on  by  a 
group  in  Caracas,  advocating  separation,  and  they  even  sent  to 
England  seeking  help  for  their  cause.  Finally,  on  April  19, 
1810,  an  independent  junta  was  formed  at  Caracas,  “to  pre- 
The  independent  serve  the  rights  of  Ferdinand  VII,”  and  the 
junta  ot  Caracas,  Spanish  officials  were  compelled  to  resign. 

Apni  19, 1810  Some  of  the  provinces,  however,  refused  to 

submit  to  this  self-constituted  government,  the  provinces  of 
Coro  and  Maracaibo  especially.  Outside,  however,  of  these 
royalist  provinces  the  Junta  was  everywhere  recognized,  and 
in  April,  1811,  the  Cabildos  of  the  various  towns  were  requested 
to  elect  members  to  a Congress.  On  July  5 this  Congress 
assembled,  and  a Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted, 
declaring  the  seven  eastern  provinces  free  and  independent 
states.  Miranda,  who  had  returned  from  Europe,  was  given 


150 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


the  military  command  of  the  new  republic.  Several  royalist 
revolts  occurred,  one  at  Caracas,  headed  by  the  clergy,  and 
another  at  Valencia,  both  of  which  Miranda  successfully  put 
down.  The  most  serious  menace  came  from  the  royalist  prov- 
ince of  Coro,  whence  a force  under  Monteverde,  an  able  Span- 
ish commander,  was  advancing  upon  Caracas. 

In  the  midst  of  this  impending  danger  to  the  new  republic  a 
terrible  earthquake  destroyed  Caracas  and  killed  over  twenty 
thousand  people  in  the  revolting  provinces,  while  twelve  thou- 
sand persons  lost  their  lives  in  the  capital  alone.  The  clergy 
immediately  took  advantage  of  this  disaster  and  began  to 
preach  divine  judgment  to  the  terrified  people,  with  the  result 
The  Great  Earthquake  that  thousands  deserted  the  patriot  cause  and 
of  1812  and  the  went  over  to  the  royalists.  Monteverde,  the 

Surrender  of  Caracas.  . . 

Death  of  Miranda,  royalist  commander,  met  little  opposition  as 
1816  he  advanced  upon  Caracas,  and  in  July,  1812, 

Miranda  signed  a capitulation,  securing  free  departure  for  the 
patriot  leaders.  Bolivar,  a prominent  leader  of  the  Creole 
party,  in  charge  of  the  fortress  of  Puerto  Cabello,  abandoned 
his  command,  and  proceeded  to  Caracas,  where  he  and  several 
other  officers  threw  Miranda  into  prison.  Here  Miranda  was 
found  by  the  Spanish  commander  when  he  took  the  city.  Bolivar 
and  the  other  officers  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  estates, 
but  Miranda,  was  kept  in  prison,  finally  being  removed  to 
Spain,  where  he  was  taken  from  prison  to  prison,  until  his 
death,  in  1816. 

Simon  Bolivar,  who  had  been  associated  with  Miranda,  was 
a Creole,  bom  at  Caracas  in  1783,  and  at  an  early  age  fell  heir 
to  large  estates  in  Venezuela.  He  received  his  education  in 
Europe,  spending  much  time  at  Madrid,  and  traveling  in 
Europe.  He  found  himself  in  Paris  during  the  closing  scenes 
of  the  Revolution,  and  there  imbibed  some  of  the  Revolutionary 
doctrines.  He  had  returned  to  Venezuela  in  1809,  “a  childless 
widower  of  twenty-nine,”  and  at  once  threw  in  his  lot  with  the 
Revolutionary  party,  then  just  beginning  operations.  On  re- 
turning to  South  America  from  Europe  he 
had  spent  some  time  in  the  United  States, 
where  he  had  observed  for  the  first  time  the  successful  workings 


Simon  Bolivar 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


151 


of  free  institutions.  After  the  fall  of  the  first  Venezuelan 
republic  Bolivar  retired  to  his  estates,  but  not  for  long.  He 
had  determined  to  devote  his  life  and  fortune  to  the  winning 
of  Venezuelan  independence,  and  from  that  time  he  became 
the  “chief  inspiration  of  the  movement  and  ultimately  the 
liberator  of  five  extensive  republics.”  He  was  not  a leader  to 
inspire  confidence  by  his  personal  appearance,  for  he  had  a 
small  and  puny  body,  and  was  of  unattractive  face  and  figure. 
He  was  also  vain  and  immoral,  two  typical  Creole  traits. 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  first  Venezuelan  republic  in  1812, 
Bolivar  went  to  Cartagena,  where  he  offered  his  sword  to  the 
Junta  of  that  city,  for  New  Granada  had  declared  also  for 
complete  independence.  Given  a small  force,  he  began  opera- 
tions on  the  Magdalena  river,  which  he  conducted  with  both 
skill  and  success.  He  now  succeeded  in  raising  a considerable 
force  of  New  Granadians,  and,  marching  eastward,  proceeded 
to  crush  the  royalist  forces  in  Venezuela.  Within  fifty  days 
he  had  cleared  the  two  western  provinces,  and  within  thirteen 
The  Second  Republic  months  after  Miranda’s  surrender  he  reen- 
of  Venezuela,  and  the  tered  Caracas  at  the  head  of  his  victorious 
campaign  of  1814  forces.  A second  Venezuelan  republic  came 
into  existence,  with  Bolivar  at  its  head,  with  the  title  of  “Lib- 
erator.” Meanwhile  new  forces  were  collecting,  which  were 
soon  to  crush  this  second  republic.  Boves,  a Spanish  sergeant, 
dismissed  from  the  Spanish  army  for  misconduct,  had  gone 
among  the  warlike  Indians  of  the  plains  and  had  succeeded  in 
organizing  in  the  name  of  the  king  a force  of  four  thousand 
Indian  horsemen,  and  was  making  his  way  toward  the  capital. 
In  June,  1814,  Bolivar  met  these  forces,  and  at  La  Puerta  suf- 
fered a disastrous  defeat.  Killing  his  prisoners,  Bolivar  de- 
serted Caracas,  and  fled  with  a band  of  revolutionists.  Cross- 
ing the  mountains,  he  once  more  offered  his  services  to  New 
Granada. 

Bolivar  came  to  New  Granada  at  an  opportune  moment,  for 
after  five  years  of  stormy  independence  the  country  was  reduced 
to  a state  of  civil  war,  due  to  the  rivalries  and  jealousies  of 
the  various  Juntas.  Both  Bogota  and  Cartagena  had  set  up 
governments,  independent  of  the  Congress,  and  Bolivar  pro- 


152 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


New  Granada 


ceeded  to  reduce  these  independent  centers.  Meanwhile  a new 
and  able  commander,  Morillo,  with  a force  of 
ten  thousand  troops,  was  sent  over  from 
Spain  by  Ferdinand,  now  restored  to  his  throne.  To  this  large 
force  New  Granada  fell  an  easy  prey,  and  once  more  Bolivar 
was  forced  to  flee.  New  Granada  was  reduced  to  obedience, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  persons  were  executed  as 
traitors.  The  revolution  appeared  to  be  crushed,  with  the 
leaders  either  dead  or  in  exile.  Not  only  in  the  north  was  the 
revolution  seemingly  ended,  but  likewise  everywhere  else,  ex- 
cept in  Argentina,  throughout  Spanish  America.  The  only 
patriot  forces  in  either  New  Granada  or  Venezuela  were  a few 
guerilla  bands,  and  a body  of  horse  that  had  been  gathered  bjr 
Paez,  an  illiterate  peasant,  operating  along  the  Orinoco. 

It  was  with  this  force  of  Paez  that  Bolivar  next  appeared. 
He  had  succeeded  in  organizing  a small  fleet  in  Haiti,  largely 
manned  by  British  sailors,  and  when  he  appeared  on  the 
Orinoco  he  was  at  once  recognized  as  leader.  By  the  early 
part  of  the  year  1818  he  had  gained  control  of  the  whole  course 
Campaign  of  i8I7-  of  the  river>  having  captured  Angostura  in 
1818  Along  the  July,  1817,  and  the  fortress  of  San  Fernando 

°nnoco  in  February,  1818.  In  the  meantime  the 

Spanish  commander  Morillo  had  returned  from  New  Granada 
to  Venezuela,  and  when  Bolivar  made  an  attempt  to  capture 
Caracas  he  was  again  badly  defeated,  and  was  left  in  desperate 
straits.  At  this  juncture  Bolivar  contracted  for  a contingent 
of  Irish  and  British  troops,  just  released  from  the  wars  of 
Europe,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  1818  some  six  thousand 
had  arrived.  Against  these  soldiers  no  troops  of  South  Amer- 
ica could  successfully  stand. 

Of  these  six  thousand  British  subjects  “five  sixths  of  them 
perished  in  the  war,  some  in  sanguinary  fights,  some  under 
stress  of  labor,  as  prisoners  in  the  torrid  climate  of  Panama, 
but  most  by  famine,  pestilence,  and  hardships,  such  as  they 
had  never  known  in  European  warfare:  they  joined  an  army  of 
almost  naked  men,  destitute  of  baggage,  com- 
missariat, surgeons,  and  ambulance,  fighting 
in  a tropical  country  of  indescribable  difficulty,  where  capture 


The  British  Forces 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


153 


meant  probable  death,  and  victory  was  followed  by  a general 
slaughter  of  prisoners,  where  the  path  of  war  led  across  plains 
which  turned  from  desert  to  swamp  with  the  change  of  season, 
through  a labyrinth  of  deep  rivers  infested  by  crocodiles  and 
mosquitos,  and  over  a vast  mass  of  frozen  mountains.”  South 
American  independence  owes  much  to  the  help  rendered  by 
British  subjects. 

Bolivar  now  conceived  the  daring  idea  of  uniting  his  forces 
with  those  of  New  Granada.  He  accordingly  started  westward 
along  the  Orinoco.  His  plans  were  to  cross  the  Andes,  over 
the  difficult  Paya  Pass,  and  surprise  the  Spanish  army  en- 
camped in  the  valley.  This  was  a very  hazardous  undertaking, 
for  the  road  over  the  mountains  in  many  places  was  but  a 
track,  and  during  their  march  the  rain  fell  in  torrents.  Reach- 
The  campaign  of  ing  the  highest  regions,  the  cold  was  so  severe 
1819.  The  Battle  of  that  all  the  horses  perished,  as  well  as  a large 

Boyaca  number  of  his  men.  The  expedition,  how- 

ever, was  successful  in  completely  surprising  the  Spaniards, 
who,  not  knowing  the  size  of  Bolivar’s  army,  hesitated  to  at- 
tack him.  This  delay  gave  the  patriots  the  needed  opportunity 
to  rest  and  to  procure  horses.  Finally,  on  August  7,  1819, 
one  of  the  most  important  battles  in  the  wars  for  independence 
was  fought  at  Boyaca.  The  patriots  were  completely  vic- 
torious, and  Bolivar  entered  Bogota.  Returning  after  this  vic- 
tory to  Venezuela,  Bolivar  ordered  Venezuela  and  New  Granada 
united  into  a single  republic,  to  be  called  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia, over  which  he  assumed  authority.  At  the  same  time  he 
removed  the  capital  from  Angostura,  on  the  Orinoco,  to  Cucuta, 
a town  situated  on  the  border  between  the  two  former  republics. 

After  Boyaca,  Morillo  and  Bolivar  signed  a six-months’ 
truce,  and  the  next  year  a new  Spanish  commander,  General 
De  Torre,  came  out,  succeeding  Morillo.  As  soon  as  the  truce 
was  ended,  Bolivar  assumed  the  offensive,  and  sought  battle 
with  the  Spaniards,  now  drawn  up  in  the  plain  of  Carabobo 
campaign  of  1821.  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  passes  to  the 
Batue  of  carabobo,  west  of  Valencia.  Bolivar  had  nine  thousand 

June,  1821  troops,  among  them  being  a British  legion  of 

more  than  a thousand.  De  Torre,  the  Spanish  commander, 


154 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Constitution  of 
1821 


had  divided  his  army,  thus  placing  himself  at  a disadvantage. 
For  the  patriots,  the  British  bore  the  brunt  of  the  fighting,  the 
turning  point  in  the  battle  being  a stirring  bayonet  charge  by 
the  British,  which  turned  a desperate  situation  into  a complete 
victory.  The  Spanish  army  fled  to  Puerto  Cabello,  while 
Bolivar  advanced  unopposed  into  Caracas,  where  a second 
time  he  was  proclaimed  the  liberator  and  saviour  of  his  coun- 
try. With  this  campaign  the  war  in  Venezuela  and  New 
Granada  was  won  and  independence  achieved. 

On  August  30,  1821,  a constitution  for  the  new  Republic  of 
Colombia  was  adopted  by  a convention  meeting  at  Cucuta. 

Bolivar  was  made  president,  although  the 
duties  of  that  office  were  assumed  by  the 
vice-president,  while  Bolivar  continued  in 
command  of  the  army.  Bolivar  now  left  for  Ecuador  and 
Peru  to  continue  the  fight  for  the  liberation  of  the  whole  con- 
tinent. Meanwhile  the  patriot  army  in  Venezuela  succeeded 
in  driving  the  Spaniards  from  Puerto  Cabello,  and  the  whole 
country  was  freed  of  Spanish  forces. 

While  Bolivar  was  leading  the  forces  of  Venezuela  and  New 
Granada  to  victory  and  independence,  similar  movements  were 
under  way  in  what  are  now  Ecuador  and  Bolivia.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  year  1809  the  Creoles  of  Quito  determined  to  over- 
throw the  Spanish  officials  and  set  up  an  independent  Junta. 
There  were  only  a few  Spanish  troops  in  Quito  and  the  move- 
ment was  successfully  carried  out  on  August  9.  The  Spanish 
officials,  however,  succeeded  in  gathering  an 
army  of  Indians,  easily  defeated  the  revolu- 
tionists, and  the  president  of  Quito  was  re- 
stored to  power.  Again,  in  1810,  the  Creoles  made  an  attempt 
to  capture  the  barracks  at  Quito,  but  were  driven  off,  and  many 
of  them  killed.  Later  Castilla,  the  president,  resigned,  to  be 
succeeded  by  a new  Junta,  and  the  war  continued.  Royalists 
and  revolutionists  each  raised  levies  among  the  Indians,  and  as 
the  armies  became  better  organized,  the  war  became  more 
cruel  and  bloody.  Finally,  in  1812,  the  Spaniards  gained  the 
upper  hand,  and  their  army,  under  the  able  command  of 
General  Montes,  took  Quito,  and  he  ruled  as  president  for  nine 


The  Revolution  in 
Ecuador 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


155 


years.  All  revolutionary  movements  in  Ecuador  were  prac- 
tically at  an  end  until  Bolivar  appeared  with  aid  from  the 
newly  organized  republic  of  Colombia.  In  the  fall  of  1821 
General  Sucre  arrived  by  sea  at  Guayquil  with  seventeen 
The  Battle  of  hundred  veterans  from  New  Granada,  while 

Pichincha,  May  24,  Bolivar  was  advancing  from  Bogota  south- 

ward. Later  Sucre  received  twelve  hundred 
reenforcements  from  San  Martin,  proceeded  toward  Quito,  and 
took  up  his  position  on  the  slopes  of  the  volcano,  Pichincha,  over- 
looking the  city.  Here  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  in  Ecuador’s 
fight  for  independence  on  the  morning  of  May  24,  1822.  The 
forces  of  Sucre  were  completely  victorious.  The  royalist  army 
was  practically  annihilated  and  surrendered  the  following  day. 

The  independence  of  Ecuador  had  been  won  by  outside 
forces,  for  the  army  of  Sucre  was  composed  of  Colombians  and 
Argentines.  After  the  victory  at  Pichincha  the  Assembly  at 
Quito  accepted  incorporation  into  the  Republic  of  Colombia, 
now  a vast  confederation. 

While  the  revolutionary  movement  was  under  way  in  all 
the  other  South  American  capitals,  Peru  alone  remained  quiet. 
Lima  was  the  very  center  of  the  Spanish  power  in  America, 
and  although  revolutionary  ideas  had  early  found  entrance 
into  Creole  society  of  the  capital,  yet  the  energy  and  activity 
displayed  by  Abascal,  the  viceroy,  made  an  open  revolt  seem 
Peru  During  the  impossible.  In  1814  there  was  an  Indian 

Early  Years  of  the  rising  in  the  region  of  Cuzco,  led  by  an 

Revolution,  1809-1820  jn(jjan  cacjqUej  but  although  it  was  aided  by 

the  people  of  La  Paz,  the  revolt  was  not  formidable  and  was 
soon  put  down  after  a horrible  massacre  near  Lake  Titicaca. 
Peru  and  Ecuador  were  the  centers  from  which  the  Spanish 
authorities  sent  out  their  expeditions  to  quell  the  revolts  in 
other  parts  of  the  continent,  and  by  1816  the  revolution  every- 
where seemed  to  be  at  an  end.  It  was  not  until  the  northern 
movement,  led  by  Bolivar  and  his  able  lieutenant  Sucre,  and 
the  southern  movement,  led  by  San  Martin,  had  won  inde- 
pendence for  all  the  other  districts  that  Peruvian  independence 
was  attained.  Peru  was  the  last  stronghold  of  Spanish  power 
in  South  America. 


156 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Before  we  can  recount  the  complete  story  of  Peru’s  inde- 
pendence we  must  turn  to  the  southern  revolutionary  move- 
ment. This  began  in  Buenos  Ayres,  swept  across  the  con- 
tinent, liberated  Chile,  and  then  swung  northward  to  join 
forces  with  Bolivar. 

The  Southern  Movement 


Buenos  Ayres  was  more  democratic  and  had  less  of  the 
aristocratic  element  than  any  of  the  other  large  cities  in  South 
America.  The  city  had  grown  very  rapidly  and  had  attracted 
the  most  adventurous  and  enterprising  people.  There  was 
also  present  an  especial  hatred  of  the  Spaniard,  due  to  Spain’s 
repressive  policy  in  regard  to  trade.  Argentina  had  also,  as  we 
have  already  noticed,  succeeded  in  repelling  the  British  in 
1806  and  again  in  1807,  and  this  achievement  had  created  a 
national  consciousness  not  elsewhere  found  in  South  America. 
Beginnings  of  the  When  the  news  of  Joseph  Bonaparte’s  usur- 

Revoiution  in  pation  of  the  Spanish  throne  reached  Buenos 

Argentina  Ayres  it  was  received  with  indignation. 

Liniers,  the  viceroy,  appointed  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
English  in  1807,  was  favored  by  the  Creoles,  and  on  the  at- 
tempt of  the  royalist  governor  of  Montevideo  to  displace  him 
he  was  reinstated  by  Creole  troops.  The  central  Junta  of 
Spain  now  sent  over  Admiral  Cisneros  as  viceroy,  who  found 
on  his  arrival  the  government  in  the  hands  of  a small  group  of 
men  who  were  working  for  independence.  The  feeling  be- 
tween the  Creole  party  and  the  Spaniards  grew  more  intense, 
and  finally,  on  May  22,  1810,  a committee  of  the  Creole  party 
waited  upon  the  viceroy  and  demanded  his  resignation.  The 
militia  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Creoles,  and  he  was 
therefore  powerless  to  resist.  On  May  25,  now  celebrated  as 
Argentina’s  independence  day,  a great  armed  assembly  met  in 
the  plaza  and  a Junta  was  named  from  among  the  Creole 
leaders. 

Like  the  other  early  revolutionary  movements,  the  Argen- 
tines did  not  intend  their  act  in  organizing  their  Junta  as  a 
separation  from  Spain,  but  professed  to  be  acting  in  the  name 
and  for  the  interest  of  Ferdinand  VII.  The  attempt,  however, 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


157 


The  Government  of 
the  Junta 


Battle  of  Tucuman, 
1812 


to  unite  the  whole  viceroyalty  under  the  Junta  failed.  Para- 
guay was  approached  on  the  matter  of  union, 
but  they  had  organized  their  own  govern- 
ment, and  declined  to  unite,  while  at  the 
same  time  a reactionary  movement  was  under  way  at  Cordoba. 
Montevideo  was  still  held  by  the  viceroy,  but  he  was  overcome 
in  1814.  The  patriots  of  Argentina  also  desired  to  unite  Bo- 
livia with  Argentina,  but  the  influential  Creole  leaders  of  that 
district  objected,  and  when  in  1811-12  an  Argentine  army 
invaded  Bolivia  they  were  defeated  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Titicaca  by  the  royalist  forces  sent  out  by  the  viceroy  of  Peru. 
The  victorious  Spanish  forces  in  turn  invaded  Argentina,  pur- 
suing the  fleeing  patriots.  They  were  now  defeated  by  General 
Belgrano  with  a patriot  army  at  Tucuman  in 
the  fall  of  1812.  This  may  be  counted  one  of 
the  decisive  battles  in  the  South  American 
wars  for  independence,  for  it  saved  Buenos  Ayres  from  cap- 
ture, and  probably  the  South  American  wars  from  extinction. 
Again  the  Argentines  attempted  invasion  of  Bolivia  in  1813, 
and  again  were  defeated  and  driven  out.  In  October  of  the 
same  year  the  army  of  Belgrano  was  practically  destroyed  at 
Vilcapujio.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  a new  leader  appeared 
in  Argentina  in  the  person  of  San  Martin. 

Jose  de  San  Martin,  the  son  of  a Spanish  official,  was  born 
in  a little  town  on  the  Uruguay  in  1778.  He  was  sent  to  Spain, 
where  he  received  a military  education,  and  was  engaged  with 
the  Spanish  army  in  many  campaigns  between  1793  and  1811, 
attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  Hearing  of  the  wars 
for  independence  in  Argentina,  San  Martin  decided  to  return 
to  his  native  land  and  landed  at  Buenos  Ayres  in  March,  1812. 
At  first  he  was  given  command  of  some  regiments  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  which  he  at  once  set  about  drilling, 
and  soon  made  of  them  the  finest  body  of 
troops  in  South  America.  After  the  defeat  of  Belgrano,  San 
Martin  succeeded  him  as  the  head  of  the  Argentine  army,  and 
at  once  began  to  put  into  operation  a comprehensive  plan, 
which  included  not  only  the  independence  of  Argentina  but 
also  the  freeing  of  the  whole  continent.  He  saw  the  futility 


Jose  de  San  Martin 


158 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


of  attempting  to  strike  at  the  Spanish  power  by  way  of  the 
mountains  in  upper  Peru,  and  began  to  elaborate  a plan  to 
invade  Peru  by  way  of  Chile.  To  carry  out  this  scheme  he 
gave  up  the  command  of  the  army  of  Argentina,  and  in  Sep- 
tember, 1814,  asked  for  the  governorship  of  the  province  of 
Cuyo,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Uspallata  pass  over  the  Andes. 

A revolutionary  movement  had  begun  in  Chile,  as  in  other 
centers  in  South  America,  when  the  news  of  the  deposition  of 
Ferdinand  reached  them.  Everywhere  sentiment  was  against 
the  French,  and  leading  Creoles  proposed  the  establishment  of 
an  independent  junta.  Feeling  rapidly  became  more  intense 
when  in  May,  1810,  the  captain-general  ordered  the  arrest  of 
the  leading  Creoles.  This  action  roused  such  a storm  of  pro- 
test that  the  captain-general  resigned  and  placed  the  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  a wealthy  nobleman.  The  agitation, 
however,  continued,  and  in  September,  1810,  a Junta  was 
organized,  which  assumed  the  government.  In  1811  a Congress 
was  elected,  but  soon  after  it  was  called  to- 
Mo ve men gether  the  several  members  from  the  southern 
provinces  withdrew,  and  proceeded  to  organ- 
ize a separate  government  at  Concepcion  under  the  leadership 
of  Rosas.  The  Santiago  faction  was  led  by  Carrera,  a young 
Creole  of  great  ambition,  who  succeeded  in  gaining  some  small 
advantages  over  the  Spanish.  His  conduct  of  the  government 
was,  however,  of  the  worst  sort,  and  factions  soon  arose  against 
him.  In  1813  the  Spanish  authorities  in  Peru  sent  down  a 
force  to  subdue  the  Chilean  revolt,  and  because  Carrera  was 
unable  to  meet  this  Spanish  army  he  was  forced  to  withdraw, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Bernardo  O’Higgins,  the  natural  son  of 
the  former  viceroy,  who  had  thrown  in  his  lot  with  the  revolu- 
tionists. O’Higgins,  however,  was  unable  to  gain  any  per- 
manent successes  against  the  Spanish  forces,  and  in  1814  the 
royalists  regained  complete  control  of  Chile.  From  1814  to 
1817  all  traces  of  the  revolution  were  crushed,  and  O’Higgins 
fled  across  the  Andes  to  Mendoza,  where  he  joined  San  Martin 
in  organizing  an  army  which  was  to  shatter  forever  the  rule  of 
the  Spaniards  on  the  Pacific. 

For  two  years  San  Martin,  aided  by  the  Chilean  patriot 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


159 


O’Higgins,  labored  in  this  extreme  out-of-the-way  province, 
organizing  and  drilling  troops,  and  gathering  supplies  for  a 
supreme  effort.  Chilean  patriots  flocked  to  their  standard,  as 
did  also  Argentines,  and  gradually  a well-equipped  and  dis- 
ciplined army  was  prepared. 

While  San  Martin  was  busy  training  his  army  of  Chileans 
and  Argentines  at  Mendoza,  affairs  at  Buenos  Ayres  were  in 
a turbulent  condition.  Civil  war  broke  out  between  the  mili- 
tary chiefs  at  the  capital  and  the  provinces,  while  insurrections 
against  the  ruling  faction  at  Buenos  Ayres  followed  one  an- 
other in  rapid  succession.  Military  dictators  rose  and  fell, 

while  the  provinces  more  and  more  ignored 

Civil  War  in  Argentina 

the  pretense  of  the  Buenos  Ayres  government 
to  rule  over  them.  During  this  period  of  disturbance  various 
schemes  of  government  were  suggested.  Belgrano  proposed 
that  the  descendant  of  the  Incas  be  made  emperor  of  South 
America,  while  others  favored  inviting  a member  of  the  reign- 
ing Portuguese  house  to  rule  in  Argentina.  The  only  definite 
result  from  these  proposals  was  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence which  was  made  at  Tucuman  by  a Congress  assembled 
there,  on  July  9,  1816,  at  which  most  of  the  provinces  were 
represented.  During  the  whole  of  the  remaining  years  of  the 
revolution  this  turbulent  condition  prevailed  in  Argentina; 
indeed,  the  contest  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  outlying 
provinces  continued  for  long  years  afterward.  Argentina’s 
part  in  the  final  struggle  for  independence  in  South  America 
is  largely  the  story  of  the  activities  on  the  sea  of  the  Irish  sea 
captain,  William  Brown,  who  commanded  the  Argentine  ships, 
and  who  succeeded  in  destroying  the  Spanish  sea  power  on  the 
Atlantic.  This  was  a large  factor  in  the  success  of  the  cam- 
paign of  San  Martin  on  the  Pacific. 

The  revolutionary  movement  in  Uruguay  up  to  1816  was 
more  or  less  a part  of  the  Argentine  movement.  After  the 
Creoles  had  established  their  independent  Junta  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  Montevideo  became  the  refuge  for  the  royalists,  and  in 
1811  the  governor  of  Montevideo  received  the  appointment  of 
viceroy  and  proceeded  to  make  war  upon  the  Creoles  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  The  leadership  of  the  Uruguayan  patriot  forces  was 


160 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Revolution  in 
Uruguay 


San  Martin  in  Chile 


assumed  by  a dauntless  guerrilla  leader,  Jose  Artigas,  who  on 
May  18,  1811,  defeated  the  royalist  forces 
just  outside  Montevideo,  but  did  not  succeed 
in  capturing  the  city.  This  was  accomplished 
soon  after,  however,  by  an  army  from  Brazil,  and  the  Portu- 
guese continued  to  hold  Uruguay  as  a part  of  their  territory 
until  1825,  when  finally  Uruguayan  independence  was  achieved, 
aided  by  Buenos  Ayres. 

By  the  end  of  1817  San  Martin  was  ready  with  his  army  to 
begin  the  invasion  of  Chile.  It  was  the  middle  of  January 
when  he  broke  camp,  and  dividing  his  forces 
into  two  divisions,  began  the  ascent  of  the 
lofty  Andes.  One  division  was  to  go  up  by  the  Uspallata  pass, 
while  the  other  was  to  take  the  more  difficult  Patos  pass  to  the 
north.  The  Spaniards  were  taken  completely  by  surprise,  and 
on  February  12  the  combined  forces  of  San  Martin  and  O’Hig- 
gins met  and  defeated  the  royalists  at  Chacabuco,  situated 
not  far  to  the  east  of  Santiago.  The  next  day  the  Spanish 
governor  fled  from  Santiago,  and  San  Martin  entered  the  city, 
where  he  was  urged  to  assume  the  govern- 
Febmary  wf  rfis'0’  ment-  This  he  declined  to  do,  but  suggested 
that  he  would  be  glad  to  have  O’Higgins, 
his  staunch  friend  and  ally,  appointed.  This  was  accordingly 
done.  But  the  independence  of  Chile  was  not  yet  accom- 
plished, for  the  southern  provinces  still  remained  in  Spanish 
hands. 

Soon  after  the  victory  at  Chacabuco  San  Martin  hurried 
back  to  Buenos  Ayres  to  urge  upon  the  Argentina  government 
the  necessity  of  creating  a fleet  on  the  Pacific,  in  order  to  assure 
the  independence  of  South  America.  Before  he  could  accom- 
plish his  mission  news  came  to  San  Martin  that  a Spanish  army 
was  active  in  southern  Chile.  Hurrying  back  to  Chile,  he  pre- 
pared his  army  to  meet  the  attack.  In  the 
first  engagement  the  royalists  attacked  the 
Chileans  in  the  night,  and  completely  sur- 
prised them.  San  Martin  was  forced  to  retreat  to  Santiago. 
Undismayed  by  this  reverse,  the  patriot  commander  reorganized 
his  forces  and  prepared  for  the  oncoming  Spanish  army.  A few 


The  Battle  of  Maipo, 
April  5,  1818 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


161 


miles  to  the  south  of  Santiago,  on  the  morning  of  April  5,  1818, 
the  battle  was  joined  and  after  a hard  struggle  the  Spanish 
army  was  completely  defeated.  Twelve  hundred  royalists  were 
killed  out  of  an  army  of  five  thousand,  while  two  thousand  two 
hundred  were  captured.  With  this  victory  the  first  part  of 
San  Martin’s  comprehensive  plan  was  accomplished,  and  Chile 
had  won  her  independence. 

Again  after  the  victory  of  Maipo  San  Martin  returned  to 
Buenos  Ayres  to  gain  the  cooperation  of  Argentina  in  his  attack 
upon  Peru.  This  he  finally  accomplished,  and  a combined  fleet 
of  Chilean  and  Argentina  ships  was  collected  in  the  Pacific, 
under  the  command  of  the  British  officer,  Lord  Thomas  Coch- 
rane. The  fleet  was  largely  maimed  by  British  and  American 
sailors.  Meanwhile  San  Martin  was  engaged  in  collecting  an 
army  for  the  invasion  of  Peru.  The  years  1818  to  1820  were 
given  to  this  task,  and  after  great  discouragements  he  succeeded 
by  the  latter  year  in  getting  together  an  army  of  some  four 
thousand.  Placing  this  army  on  board  the  ships  of  Lord 
San  Martin  Invades  Cochrane’s  fleet  in  August,  1820,  they  ar- 
Peru,  September,  rived  at  the  bay  of  Pisco  the  following 
month,  where  they  landed  without  opposition. 
Up  to  this  time  no  revolutionary  movement  of  any  consequence 
had  taken  place  in  Peru.  Lima  alone  was  defended  by  nine 
thousand  soldiers,  while  an  army  of  six  thousand  was  guarding 
the  Bolivian  border.  San  Martin  knew  he  was  hopelessly  out- 
numbered, but  he  also  knew  that  many  of  the  royalist  forces 
were  Indians,  who  were  secretly  in  favor  of  the  revolution.  He 
accordingly  adopted  the  policy  of  avoiding  a pitched  battle, 
while  he  sent  out  small  bodies  of  troops  to  arouse  the  natives 
and  van  them  away  from  the  royalist  cause.  Meanwhile  San 
Martin  transferred  his  main  force  to  Huacho,  seventy  miles 
north  of  Lima. 

The  policy  adopted  by  San  Martin  was  completely  successful. 
Desertions  from  the  Spanish  army  became  frequent,  while  the 
viceroy  feared  to  attack  for  fear  of  insurrection  at  Lima.  The 
royalists  were  expecting  reenforcements  from  Spain,  where  a 
large  army  was  being  prepared.  This  hoped-for  relief,  how- 
ever, was  destined  not  to  arrive,  for  a mutiny  among  the  Span- 


162 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


ish  troops  occurred  on  the  very  eve  of  their  embarkation,  which 
began  a Spanish  revolution,  making  it  impos- 
Lhna^juiy1 28°  2 1 sible  for  Ferdinand  to  send  out  any  help  to 

the  viceroy.  When  this  news  reached  Pez- 
uela,  the  viceroy,  he  determined  to  return  to  Spain,  and  the 
Spanish  officers  chose  La  Serna,  one  of  their  own  number,  to 
succeed  him.  La  Serna  now  entered  into  negotiations  with 
San  Martin,  hoping  to  come  to  some  peaceful  settlement  of 
the  whole  South  American  question.  These  negotiations,  how- 
ever, were  without  result  and  the  Spaniards  evacuated  Lima 
on  July  6.  On  July  28  San  Martin  entered  the  city  and  a re- 
public was  proclaimed,  with  San  Martin  the  temporary  dic- 
tator with  the  title  of  protector. 

San  Martin  continued  to  manage  the  affairs  of  Peru  until 
the  summer  of  1822,  all  the  time  hampered  by  jealousies  and 
growing  distrust  on  the  part  of  the  leading  Peruvians.  At  this 
time  the  royalist  army  began  to  take  the  offensive,  and  San 
Martin  realized  the  necessity  of  gaining  help.  Meanwhile 
Bolivar  was  approaching.  Sucre  had  won  the  battle  of  Pichin- 
cha  in  May,  1822,  thus  emancipating  Ecuador  from  Spanish 
„ „ . „ rule.  In  the  fall  of  1822  San  Martin  met 

san  Martin  and  Bolivar  in  the  coast  town  of  Guayaquil. 

Boiivar^at  Guayaquil,  Exactly  what  took  place  at  this  interview 
has  never  been  disclosed,  but  we  know  that 
San  Martin  offered  to  serve  under  Bolivar.  San  Martin  ex- 
pected to  find  in  Bolivar  an  unselfish  patriot,  but  of  this  expec- 
tation he  was  soon  disillusioned,  for  he  found  the  liberator  of 
Colombia  busy  forming  plans  for  his  own  aggrandizement. 
San  Martin  soon  saw  that  he  could  not  work  with  Bolivar,  and 
on  September  20,  1822,  he  resigned  his  authority  and  retired 
from  Peru,  leaving  Bolivar  in  full  possession. 

After  his  retirement  San  Martin  spent  some  time  in  Chile, 
later  going  to  Argentina,  but  his  life  became  so  unpleasant, 
due  to  the  machinations  of  his  enemies,  that  he  finally  left 
South  America,  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  Europe. 
He  lived  until  1850,  dying  at  Boulogne.  San  Martin  was  an 
extremely  modest  man.  He  was  never  self-seeking,  never  at- 
tempted to  gain  anything  for  his  own  advantage.  It  is  said 


THE  WARS  FOR  INDEPENDENCE 


163 


An  Estimate  of  San 
Martin 


that  he  never  made  a speech  in  his  life,  and  he  always  hated 
display  of  every  kind.  He  might  have  re- 
mained in  South  America  and  taken  part  in  the 
endless  civil  wars,  but  rather  than  do  that  he  went  into  volun- 
tary exile.  South  Americans  have  but  recently  come  to  appre- 
ciate the  services  of  this  really  great  man,  and  now  there  are 
few  cities  in  Argentina  that  have  not  erected  a monument  to 
his  memory.  To  San  Martin,  more  than  to  any  other,  the 
independence  of  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Peru  is  due. 

Bolivar  now  took  up  the  work  where  San  Martin  had  left  it. 
He  had  expected  that  Peru  would  at  once  invite  him  and  his 
army  to  come  to  their  help,  but  at  first  there  was  no  disposition 
on  the  part  of  the  Peruvians  to  do  this.  There  were  still  many 
royalist  soldiers  in  Peru,  and  in  1823  they  became  active  and 
defeated  the  Peruvians.  Bolivar  was  now  asked  to  render 
assistance,  and  he  accordingly  entered  Lima  and  was  pro- 
claimed director.  Leaving  Lima,  he  repaired  northward  into 
The  Battle  of  Colombia,  where  he  hastily  gathered  an  army. 

Ayacucho,  September  This  done,  he  set  out  for  Peru  to  give  aid  to 
8’ 1824  Sucre,  now  hard  pressed  by  royalist  forces. 

An  engagement  was  fought  at  Junin  on  August  5,  1824,  at 
which  the  patriots  barely  snatched  a victory  out  of  defeat. 
Later  Sucre  met  the  royalists  at  Ayacucho,  in  central  Peru, 
about  half  way  between  Lima  and  Cuzco.  Here  the  last  battle 
in  the  South  American  wars  for  independence  was  fought,  and 
it  was  a worthy  close  to  the  long  struggle.  Six  thousand  pa- 
triots met  and  defeated  nine  thousand  royalists.  The  viceroy 
was  made  a prisoner,  and  soon  afterward  upward  of  twenty- 
three  thousand  royalist  troops  surrendered  in  Peru.  Callao 
still  held  out  for  some  months  longer,  but  in  January,  1826, 
this  last  Spanish  stronghold  gave  way,  and  the  whole  continent 
was  freed  from  Spanish  domination. 


READING  REFERENCES 

Perhaps  the  best  brief  account  of  the  South  American  wars  for  Inde- 
pendence may  be  found  in  The  Cambridge  Modem  History , Vol.  X,  Chap- 
ter IX. 

Another  brief  account  may  be  found  in  Narrative  and  Critical  History 
of  America,  by  Justin  Winsor,  Vol.  VIII. 


164 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


South  American  Republics,  by  Thomas  C.  Dawson,  Vols.  I and  II, 
furnish  good  popular  accounts  and  each  country  receives  separate  treat- 
ment. 

The  Independence  of  the  South  American  Republics,  by  Frederic  Logan 
Paxson  (1903),  is  largely  devoted  to  an  exposition  of  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  and  England  toward  the  wars  for  Independence. 

Other  useful  books  for  this  period  are  Simon  Bolivar,  by  F.  L.  Petre 
(1904);  Miranda  and  the  Revolutionizing  of  Spanish  America,  by  W.  S. 
Robertson;  Am.  Hist.  Association  Reports,  1907. 

Rise  of  the  Spanish-American  Republics  as  Told  in  the  Lives  of  Their 
Liberators,  by  W.  S.  Robertson  (Appleton,  1918). 


CHAPTER  XIV 


Napoleon  and 
Portugal 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  BRAZIL  AND  THE  INDEPENDENCE 
OF  MEXICO 

Portugal  as  well  as  Spain  became  involved  in  the  Napo- 
leonic wars.  After  the  treaty  between  France  and  Spain 
had  brought  about  friendly  relations  between  those  two  coun- 
tries, Portugal  continued  to  admit  English  ships  to  her  ports. 
England  and  Portugal  had  been  on  friendly  terms  for  more 
than  two  centuries  and  Portugal  was  unwilling  to  forego  this 
friendship  at  the  behest  of  Napoleon,  so  when  Napoleon  de- 
manded that  Portugal  make  war  on  England, 
and  confiscate  all  English  property,  Portugal 
refused.  This  refusal  led  Napoleon  to  send 
an  army  into  Portugal.  Resistance  was  hopeless,  and  Dom 
John,  the  regent,  determined  to  take  the  royal  family  and  sail 
for  Brazil,  Portugal’s  great  colony  in  America.  Accordingly, 
the  regent,  the  Queen,  Maria  I,  his  insane  mother,  his  imme- 
diate family,  and  a large  number  of  nobles  and  officials  and  the 
treasury  of  the  kingdom,  set  sail  from  Lisbon  November  29, 
1807.  The  next  day  the  French  army  reached  Lisbon  only  to 
see  the  masts  of  the  fleet  bearing  the  royal  family  disappearing 
down  the  Tagus. 

The  court  reached  Bahia  on  January  25,  1808,  and  received 
a royal  welcome  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  old  capital,  who 
would  have  been  glad  to  have  the  court  remain.  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro, however,  had  been  selected  as  the  new  seat  of  the  royal 
family  and  thither  they  proceeded  after  a short  stay  at  Bahia. 
The  coming  of  the  court  to  Brazil  was  to  begin  a new  policy, 
The  coming  ot  the  f°r  Dom  John  at  once  threw  open  the  ports 
Royal  Family  to  to  foreign  commerce  and  a new  era  of  pros- 
Brazii,  1807-1808  perity  began.  Previously  all  intercourse  be- 
tween Brazil  and  foreign  nations  had  been  prohibited,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  crown  drew  vast  revenues  from  her  great 
colony.  Dom  John  also  removed  the  restrictions  against  indus- 

165 


166 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Court  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro 


tries  and  Brazil  enjoyed  a new  activity  along  many  lines.  A 
royal  mint  was  established,  and  also  a National  Bank  and 
Military  School,  as  well  as  the  Royal  Printing  Press  and  Med- 
ical School. 

While  these  beneficial  reforms  were  taking  place  the  govern- 
ment was  being  organized  on  the  old  Portuguese  model.  Dom 
John  had  brought  with  him  a vast  number  of  officials,  eccle- 
siastics, nobles,  and  adventurers,  all  of  whom  expected  support 
from  the  people  of  Brazil.  Dom  John  was  a well-meaning  ruler, 
but  weak  and  undecided.  As  officialdom  increased  the  ex- 
penses likewise  grew,  and  heavy  taxes  were  imposed  upon  the 
people.  The  regent  was  lavish  with  honors 
and  offices,  whereas  previously  titles  of  no- 
bility had  been  almost  unknown.  Brazilians 
now  vied  with  the  Portuguese  in  seeking  these  honors  and  “it 
is  said  that  Dom  John  conferred  more  honorary  insignia  while 
in  Brazil  than  had  all  the  kings  of  the  House  of  Braganza  who 
had  preceded  him.”  The  management  of  the  finances  was  bad 
and  it  was  not  long  until  they  were  in  utmost  confusion.  But 
in  spite  of  these  handicaps  Brazil  prospered,  for  foreign  trade 
brought  immigrants,  English  shipbuilders,  and  artisans,  as  well 
as  Swedish,  German,  and  French,  who  by  their  example  of 
energy  and  industry  diffused  new  energy  into  the  country. 

The  year  after  the  removal  of  the  Portuguese  court  to  Brazil 
an  expedition  was  sent  to  occupy  French  Guiana  in  retaliation 
for  the  French  invasion  of  Portugal.  Attempts  were  also  made 
to  seize  the  Spanish  colonies  of  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  the  Spanish  colonists  were  invited  to  place  themselves 
under  Portuguese  protection.  This  proffer  was  refused,  how- 
ever, and  in  1817  the  Brazilians  captured  Montevideo,  which 
The  Kingdom  of  they  held  as  a province  of  Brazil  for  a num- 

Portugai,  Brazil,  and  ber  of  years.  In  1816  the  mad  Queen  Maria 

Algarves  died  and  Dom  John  assumed  the  title,  John 

VI,  King  of  Portugal,  Brazil,  and  Algarves.  The  decision  of 
John  VI  to  remain  in  Brazil,  and  the  changing  of  the  name  of 
the  kingdom,  produced  growing  discontent  in  the  homeland. 
The  government  in  Brazil  was  not  in  the  hands  of  natives,  for 
the  Portuguese  held  practically  every  office,  and  this  condition 


THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  MEXICO 


167 


The  Revolution  of 
1820 


produced  discontent.  This  dissatisfaction  was  heightened  by  a 
decree  levying  heavy  taxes  upon  Brazilian  customs  for  a period 
of  forty  years  for  the  benefit  of  the  nobles  of  Portugal,  who  had 
suffered  in  the  war  with  France. 

In  1817  plots  were  discovered  both  in  Portugal  and  Brazil 
looking  toward  the  establishment  of  popular  government,  but 
were  easily  put  down.  The  discovery  of  republican  desires  on  the 
part  of  the  Brazilians  induced  the  king  to  send  to  Portugal  for  a 
body  of  forty-five  hundred  veteran  troops,  who  were  stationed 
at  the  various  important  centers.  In  1820  another  revolution 
broke  out  in  Portugal,  and  this  time  repre- 
sentative government  was  established.  The 
Portuguese  troops  stationed  in  Brazil  were 
friendly  toward  this  liberal  movement  and  revolted  in  order 
to  compel  the  king  to  accept  the  constitution  which  had  been 
proclaimed  in  Portugal.  Things  were  in  a serious  condition 
when  Dom  Pedro,  the  son  of  King  John,  came  forward  as  a 
mediator  between  the  troops  and  the  king.  The  king  finally 
accepted  the  constitution  and  appointed  a new  ministry. 

Soon  after  this  King  John  decided  to  return  to  Portugal,  in- 
fluenced by  public  opinion  there  and  also  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment. This  he  did  much  against  his  desire,  leaving  Dom 
Pedro  as  regent.  Fortunately  for  Brazil,  many  of  the  nobles  and 
hangers-on  of  the  court  accompanied  him,  though  he  carried 
off  a vast  sum  of  specie  from  the  National  Bank.  This  proce- 
The  Movement  dure  filled  the  Brazilians  with  alarm,  and 

Toward  Nationalism  when  the  Cortes  of  Portugal  ordered  the 
prince,  Dom  Pedro,  also  to  return,  a crisis 
was  precipitated.  Brazilians  foresaw  that  if  their  prince  re- 
turned to  Portugal,  Brazil  would  probably  be  reduced  to  her 
old  position  as  a colony  instead  of  remaining  an  integral  part 
of  the  kingdom,  and  the  old  restrictions  would  be  renewed.  As 
a result  of  this  the  patriotic  party,  which  had  before  consisted 
only  of  those  who  favored  a republic,  now  began  to  advocate 
separation  from  the  mother  country.  Dom  Pedro  was  tom 
asunder.  He  did  not  wish  to  be  a traitor  to  his  father  or  to 
Portugal,  and  for  a time  he  strongly  considered  returning  to 
Portugal. 


168 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Independence  of 
Brazil,  September  7, 
1822 


The  leader  of  the  party  for  Brazilian  independence  was  Jose 
Bonifacio  de  Andrada.  Andrada  was  a man  of  statesmanlike 
qualities,  besides  being  a distinguished  scientist.  He  had  taken 
part  in  the  Peninsular  war,  had  become  disgusted  with  the 
Portuguese  government,  and  on  his  return  to  Brazil,  in  1819, 
became  a stanch  advocate  of  separation  and  independence. 

On  the  demand  of  the  Cortes  that  Dom 
Pedro  return,  great  pressure  was  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  prince  by  leading  Brazilians, 
and  he  was  at  last  persuaded  to  remain  and  defend  Brazil  not 
against  his  father  but  against  the  Cortes.  A new  ministry  was 
formed  in  which  Andrada  was  given  a chief  place,  while  a Legis- 
lative Assembly  was  called  on  June  3,  1822.  At  first  Dom 
Pedro  accepted  the  title  of  “Perpetual  Protector  and  Defender 
of  Brazil.”  Finally,  on  September  7,  1822,  the  independence  of 
Brazil  was  declared  by  the  prince,  and  on  October  12  he  was 
declared  the  constitutional  emperor  of  Brazil. 

Several  of  the  ports  were  still  occupied  by  Portuguese  troops, 
and  the  next  thing  attempted  after  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence was  to  secure  these  ports.  Lord  Thomas  Cochrane 
was  made  the  commander  of  the  imperial  fleet  of  Brazil,  and  he 
Expulsion  of  successfully  blockaded  the  coast.  On  July  2, 

Portuguese  Troops  1823,  the  Portuguese  commander  at  Bahia 

was  forced  to  surrender,  and  soon  after  the 
garrison  at  Montevideo  was  also  expelled.  By  the  end  of  the 
year  the  emperor  was  established  securely  upon  his  new  throne, 
and  the  empire  of  Brazil  had  become  an  accomplished  fact. 
On  August  29,  1825,  largely  through  British  influence,  Portu- 
gal recognized  the  independence  of  Brazil. 


The  Independence  of  Mexico 
The  causes  of  the  revolution  in  Mexico  were  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  those  which  gave  liberty  to  South  America.  Be- 
sides the  jealousy  existing  between  the  Creole  class  and  the 
European-born  Spaniards,  the  oppressive  taxation  and  bad 
economic  policies,  there  were  certain  other  grievances  peculiar 
to  Mexico.  In  1804  certain  benevolent  funds,  amounting  to 
$45,000,000,  invested  in  mortgages,  were  called  in  for  the 


THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  MEXICO 


169 


Causes  of  the 
Mexican  Revolution 


benefit  of  Spain.  As  a result  there  were  many  forced  sales, 
and  many  were  ruined.  There  followed  also 
other  exactions  and  confiscations,  and  when 
Joseph  Bonaparte  succeeded  Ferdinand  VII  on 
the  throne  of  Spain  the  City  of  Mexico  urged  the  viceroy,  Iturri- 
garay,  to  declare  the  country  independent.  The  viceroy  pro- 
posed a Congress,  but  before  it  could  be  called  together  a 
conspiracy,  made  up  mostly  of  Spaniards  who  feared  separa- 
tion would  result  in  their  loss  of  their  privileged  positions,  over- 
threw the  viceroy,  and  he  was  sent  to  Spain  a prisoner. 

The  next  two  viceroys  were  men  who  possessed  few  qualities 
for  that  office.  There  were  several  trials  for  treason  as  a result 
of  the  previous  outbreak,  which  increased  the  discontent,  and 
the  revolutionary  element  increased  in  numbers.  The  first 
phase  of  the  Mexican  revolution  began  in  1810  and  continued 
for  ten  years.  These  first  ten  years  were  characterized  by 
Indian  revolts,  which  were  badly  organized  and  accomplished 
very  little  for  the  cause  of  independence.  A revolution  broke 
out  in  1810  to  the  north  of  Mexico  City,  in  Queretaro  and 
Guanajuato.  The  leaders  of  this  revolt  were 
Miguel  Hidalgo,  a native  priest,  and  Allende, 
a captain  of  cavalry.  Their  forces  were 
largely  made  up  of  Indians,  badly  organized  and  poorly  armed. 
On  September  28,  1810,  they  attacked  the  town  of  Guanajuato, 
which  was  defended  by  the  intendent.  After  bloody  hand-to- 
hand  fighting  the  rebels  took  the  fortress.  Hidalgo  now  pro- 
ceeded toward  Mexico  City,  fighting  as  he  went.  Learning 
that  a large  force  was  coming  against  him  from  San  Luis 
Potosi,  he  decided  it  was  best  to  retreat  to  the  district  from 
which  his  support  was  derived.  This  retreat  led  to  desertions, 
so  that  when  he  was  attacked  by  the  royalist  forces  at  Celaya 
the  insurgents  were  routed.  Hidalgo  now  reorganized  his 
forces  once  more  and,  proceeding  to  Guadalajara,  set  up  a 
form  of  government.  The  insurgents  were  now  in  possession 
of  territory  stretching  from  sea  to  sea,  and  including  the  present 
states  of  Zacatecas  and  San  Luis  Potosi. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1811  Hidalgo  moved  out  of 
Guadalajara  with  his  entire  force,  which  consisted  of  60,000 


The  First  Phase  of 
the  Mexican 
Revolution,  1810-1820 


170 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


infantry,  20,000  cavalry,  and  100  cannon.  The  royalist  forces 
were  much  smaller,  numbering  not  more  than  6,000  all  told, 
but  they  were  well  disciplined,  and  under  a 
Execution^HiSo  skillful  commander.  On  January  21  a battle 
was  fought  near  the  city  of  Guadalajara, 
which  resulted  in  the  complete  victory  of  the  royalists.  Hi- 
dalgo fled,  turning  over  the  command  of  the  army  to  Allende. 
The  defeat  of  the  patriot  forces  was  a serious  blow  to  the  cause. 
Town  after  town  now  yielded  to  the  victors,  while  the  leaders 
attempted  to  escape  to  the  United  States.  They  were  soon 
captured  and  the  judgment  of  death  upon  Hidalgo  and  Allende 
followed. 

The  revolution,  however,  was  not  yet  entirely  overthrown. 
In  the  southern  provinces  a small  body  of  insurgents  remained 
under  arms  under  the  leadership  of  another  native  priest,  Jos6 
Maria  Morelos.  For  two  years  this  energetic  leader  kept  life 
in  the  movement,  winning  some  victories  and  capturing  some 
towns,  taking  Acapulco  in  1813.  In  the  early  part  of  1814  the 
insurgent  forces  appeared  before  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Michoacan,  where  they  were  met  by  a force 

The  Revolution  Under  , . r . 

Morelos.  Execution  of  royalists  under  Iturbide  and  defeated.  The 

of  Morelos,  Decem-  patriots  were  maintaining  a form  of  govern- 

ment,  under  a Congress,  and  so  numerous 

were  the  adherents  that  in  1814  the  viceroy  appealed  to  the 

home  government  for  a reenforcement  of  eight  thousand  men. 

The  patriot  forces  now  suffered  disaster  after  disaster.  In 

the  latter  part  of  1815  Morelos  was  captured,  and  soon  after 

met  the  same  fate  as  his  fellow  patriot,  Hidalgo.  During  1816 

the  war  continued  without  any  result  on  either  side,  and 

in  the  fall  a new  viceroy  came  out  to  succeed  Calleja.  The 

new  viceroy  adopted  a policy  of  conciliation,  which,  combined 

with  skill  and  energy,  caused  the  surrender  of  the  leading  rebel 

officers  in  January,  1817.  With  this  the  first  phase  of  the 

Mexican  revolution  closed. 

In  1820  a revolution  broke  out  in  Spain,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  compel  Ferdinand  VII  to  accept  the  constitution  which 
had  been  adopted  in  Spain  in  1812.  This  constitution  pro- 
vided for  a liberal  form  of  government.  The  promulgation  of 


THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  MEXICO 


171 


The  Conservative 
Revolution 


this  constitution  in  Mexico  had  a very  different  effect  from  what 
was  anticipated.  On  the  one  hand  it  revived  the  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence which  had  been  smouldering  since  the  overthrow  of 
the  former  revolutionary  movement;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
effect  upon  the  European-born  Spaniards  and  high  church 
officials  was  quite  different.  These  classes,  composing  the 
conservative  party,  opposed  the  constitution,  fearing  it  would 
curtail  their  privileges.  Although  he  had 
taken  an  oath  to  support  the  constitution, 
Apodaca,  the  viceroy,  secretly  favored  the 
opposition,  and  plans  were  now  laid  by  the  conservatives  to 
declare  the  independence  of  Mexico  from  a liberal  Spain. 
The  church  favored  this  movement,  fearing  that  a liberal 
government  would  force  on  them  disendowment,  toleration, 
and  other  radical  reforms.  Agustin  de  Iturbide  was  induced 
to  become  the  commander  of  the  forces  of  the  conservatives. 
Iturbide,  however,  seems  to  have  had  far  different  intentions 
from  those  held  by  the  European-born  Spaniards.  He  now 
conceived  the  idea  of  uniting  the  conservative  and  Creole 
forces  and  of  proclaiming  the  independence  of 
The  Plan  of  iguaia  Mexico.  It  was  at  the  town  of  Iguala,  near 
Acapulco,  that  he  proclaimed  this  project, 
on  February  24,  1821.  For  this  reason  it  has  become  known 
as  the  “Plan  of  Iguala.”  It  declared  that  Mexico  should  be  an 
independent  nation,  with  a constitutional  monarchy  headed  by 
a Bourbon  prince,  and  the  Catholic  faith  as  its  form  of  religion. 

The  next  move  was  the  deposition  of  the  viceroy  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  a military  officer  in  his  place,  who,  however,  had 
but  little  authority.  The  survivors  of  the  early  movements 
now  flocked  to  the  standard  of  Iturbide,  and  by  July,  1821, 
the  whole  country  recognized  his  authority. 
At  this  juncture  a new  viceroy,  O’Donoju, 
came  out  from  Spain.  An  interview  was 
arranged  between  him  and  Iturbide  at  Cordoba,  and  there  the 
viceroy  was  persuaded  to  accept  the  plan  of  Iguala  to  put  a 
Bourbon  upon  the  throne  of  Mexico.  On  September  27,  1821, 
the  capital  was  entered  by  the  insurgent  army  without  blood- 
shed, the  independence  of  Mexico  having  been  declared. 


The  Independence  of 
Mexico 


172 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Iturbide  Elected 
Emperor 


Provision  was  now  made  for  the  assembling  of  a Congress, 
which  came  together  on  February  24,  1822.  When  Congress 
met  three  parties  were  found  among  its  members : the  Bourbon- 
ists,  who  favored  the  plan  of  Iguala;  the  Republicans,  who 
favored  the  establishment  of  a federal  republic;  and  the  Itur- 
bidites,  who  desired  to  put  Iturbide  upon  the  throne.  In  the 
meantime  it  was  learned  that  the  government 
of  Spain  refused  to  recognize  the  independ- 
ence of  Mexico,  and  thus  there  was  no  chance 
to  place  a Bourbon  upon  the  throne.  The  only  two  parties  left 
were  the  Republican  and  the  party  of  Iturbide.  Finally,  on 
May  18,  Iturbide  was  elected  emperor  under  the  title  of  Agus- 
tin  the  First.  The  ratification  of  this  action  was  soon  given 
by  the  provinces  and  the  new  reign  started  most  favorably. 
Iturbide,  however,  assumed  all  the  airs  of  an  hereditary  mon- 
arch; a struggle  for  power  between  the  emperor  and  Congress 
immediately  began,  which  finally  ended  with  the  emperor’s 
overthrow. 

Iturbide  exerted  his  authority  with  a high  hand  and  pro- 
ceeded to  imprison  the  leading  members  of  Congress,  finally 
proclaiming  its  dissolution.  A Junta  was  appointed  in  its 
place,  nominated  by  the  emperor.  This  action  led  to  the 
breaking  out  of  revolts  in  the  northern  provinces  in  November, 
which,  however,  were  readily  suppressed.  The  next  month 
saw  another  more  serious  revolt,  led  by  a young  general,  Santa 

Overthrow  of  Iturbide  Anna>  wh°  WES  S00n  joined  bY  a number  of 

the  old  Republican  leaders.  Immediately  the 
whole  population  flocked  to  the  Republican  standard  and  Itur- 
bide found  himself  practically  deserted.  This  led  him  to  abdi- 
cate on  March  19,  1823,  promising  at  the  same  time  to  leave 
the  country,  not,  however,  until  he  had  been  assured  an  allow- 
ance of  $25,000  annually.  In  May  he  embarked  for  Italy.  He 
remained  in  Europe  only  a year,  returning  in  disguise  in  July, 
1824.  On  learning  of  his  intention  to  return,  Congress  had 
passed  a law  outlawing  him,  and  he  had  no  sooner  landed  than 
he  was  seized  and  almost  immediately  shot.  With  the  adop- 
tion of  a new  constitution  in  October,  1824,  the  Republic  of 
Mexico  was  created. 


THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  MEXICO 


173 


The  independence  of  Central  America  was  accomplished 
without  the  shedding  of  blood,  as  there  were  no  Spanish  troops 
stationed  there.  Central  America  was  a neglected  part  of  the 
Spanish  colonial  empire,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  its  colonial 
history  was  governed  by  a captain-general,  whose  seat  of 
government  was  in  Guatemala.  It  was  not  until  both  Co- 
lombia to  the  south  and  Mexico  on  the  north 
independence 040  had  achieved  their  independence  that  the 
people  of  Central  America  took  any  steps 
toward  asserting  their  own  independence.  In  September,  1821, 
Guatemala  declared  herself  free,  to  be  followed  soon  afterward 
by  San  Salvador  and  Honduras.  The  Spanish  officials  could 
make  no  resistance  to  these  declarations.  They  fled  to  Cuba 
and  from  thence  to  Spain.  During  the  brief  reign  of  Iturbide 
Central  America  was  annexed  to  Mexico,  though  there  was 
some  resistance  to  this  plan.  When,  however,  a republic  was 
proclaimed  in  Mexico  in  1824,  the  Central  American  states 
withdrew  from  the  confederation  and  drove  out  the  Mexican 
officials.  A federation  of  the  Central  American  States  was 
then  formed,  modeled  after  the  government  of  the  United 
States. 

In  winning  their  independence  the  Latin-American  states 
had  received  encouragement  and  help  from  both  England  and 
the  United  States.  In  the  early  years  of  the  struggle  England, 
by  her  naval  victories  over  the  French  and  the  Spanish,  made 
it  impossible  for  aid  to  be  sent  to  the  Spanish  royalist  officials 
in  South  and  Central  America.  At  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars  England  and  Spain  entered  into  a treaty, 
England  promising  to  prevent  her  subjects 
from  supplying  the  insurgents  in  America 
with  war  supplies.  In  spite  of  this  treaty, 
however,  Englishmen  continued  to  give  active  aid  to  the 
Spanish  rebels.  Soldiers  were  openly  enlisted  in  London, 
ships  were  chartered  for  South  American  service  and  loaded 
with  supplies  at  British  ports,  and  as  we  have  already  seen, 
more  than  one  battle  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  patriots  by 
the  participation  of  British  legions  and  British  sailors.  In 
1817,  when  Ferdinand  of  Spain  proposed  that  the  allied  powers 


The  Relation  of  Eng- 
land to  the  Spanish- 
American  Wars  for 
Independence 


174 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


of  Europe  assist  Spain  in  reducing  her  rebellious  colonists  to 
submission,  England’s  attitude  defeated  the  nefarious  proposi- 
tion. It  was  England’s  desire  for  South  American  trade, 
coupled  with  her  love  for  liberty  and  popular  government, 
which  accounts  for  her  action. 

As  early  as  1817  the  United  States  sent  commissioners  to 
South  America,  and  in  1822  recognized  the  independence  of 
Colombia,  Chile,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Mexico.  In  the  summer 
of  1823  a French  army  had  invaded  Spain  to  put  down  the 
rebellion  there  and  the  European  allies  were  considering  meas- 
ures for  the  settlement  of  Spain’s  colonial  difficulties.  Great 
Britain  had  already  intimated  to  the  European  states  that  she 
considered  the  separation  of  the  colonies  from  Spain  as  ac- 
complished, though  she  had  not  as  yet  recognized  their  inde- 
pendence. Canning,  the  British  foreign  minister,  sought  the 
cooperation  of  the  United  States  in  formulating  a South  Amer- 
ican policy,  but  as  Great  Britain  refused  immediate  recognition 
for  the  Latin-American  states,  the  United 
the'  Moaroe^ Doctrine  States  proceeded  to  formulate  its  own  policy. 

While  both  the  United  States  and  England 
were  friends  to  liberal  government,  yet  there  was  considerable 
rivalry  between  them,  because  England  feared  the  United 
States  would  obtain  a supremacy  in  South  American  affairs. 
England  notified  the  allied  powers  that  she  would  oppose  any 
step  on  their  part  looking  toward  intervention  in  American 
affairs,  and  since  England  controlled  the  sea,  her  protest  was 
very  important.  This  was  done  in  October,  1823,  while  in 
December  of  that  year  President  Monroe  sent  his  famous  mes- 
sage to  the  American  Congress.  In  that  message  he  stated 
that  the  United  States  would  consider  any  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  absolute  monarchies  of  Europe  “to  extend  their 
system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our 
peace  and  safety.”  He  further  stated  that  the  United  States 
could  not  view  any  interposition  for  the  purpose  of  oppressing 
the  South  American  States,  or  “controlling  in  any  manner 
their  destiny,  by  any  European  power,  in  any  other  light  than 
as  the  manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the 
United  States.” 


THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  MEXICO 


175 


This,  with  the  protest  already  made  by  England,  was  suffi- 
cient to  keep  the  European  powers  from  carrying  out  their 
intention  of  interfering  with  the  South  American  revolutions. 
In  spite  of  these  protests  on  the  part  of  England  and  America, 
and  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
Colombia,  and  Mexico  by  England,  Spain  kept  up  the  pre- 
tense of  carrying  on  the  wars  in  America  until  1830.  In  that 
year  the  papal  court  opened  up  relations  with  the  South  Amer- 
ican countries,  which  was  an  important  concession,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  next  twenty-five  years  Spain  recognized  the 
independence  of  each  of  her  one-time  colonies. 

READING  REFERENCES 

In  addition  to  the  references  cited  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  chapter, 
the  following  may  be  added:  Memoirs  of  the  Mexican  Revolution,  by  Robin- 
son; History  of  Mexico,  by  H.  H.  Bancroft,  Vol.  Ill,  for  Mexico;  for  Brazil, 
History  of  Brazil,  from  1808-1831,  2 vols.,  by  John  Armitage,  will  be 
found  useful,  as  will  also  South  American  Republics,  by  Thomas  C.  Daw- 
son, Vol.  I;  for  Central  America,  History  of  European  Colonization,  by 
E.  J.  Payne.  A recent  book  dealing  with  the  part  taken  by  the  English 
in  Latin  American  independence  is  British  Exploits  in  South  America,  by 
W.  H.  Koebel  (1917). 


CHAPTER  XV 


THE  BACKWARD  STATES  AND  THE  MILITARY 
DICTATORS 

In  all  of  the  Latin  American  states  during  the  first  period  of 
independence  ignorant  soldiers  were  at  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernments. The  lieutenants  of  Bolivar  ruled  in  the  north  and 
northwestern  states,  while  other  rulers,  equally  inefficient,  ruled 
in  Paraguay,  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Mexico.  During  the  early 
years  of  independence  Latin  America  has  little  history  worth 
remembering  in  detail.  A brilliant  South  American  has  summed 
up  these  years  as  follows:  “The  political  com- 
PeriodtenStiCS  °f  1116  edy  ^ repeated  periodically:  a revolution,  a 
dictator;  a program  of  national  restoration, 
followed  by  another  revolution,  another  dictator,  etc.”  An- 
archy led  to  dictatorships,  and  these  in  turn  provoked  revolu- 
tions. The  north  and  northwestern  states  had  been  united 
both  in  colonial  and  revolutionary  times,  but  became  divided 
into  several  separate  states,  largely  at  the  behest  of  the  military 
dictators.  All  of  the  states  established  liberal  constitutions, 
modeled  after  the  French  or  the  United  States,  but  these  con- 
stitutions were  powerless  to  produce  actual  republican  gov- 
ernments, in  opposition  to  the  military  dictators. 

After  the  liberation  of  South  America  from  Spanish  rule 
Bolivar  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  unite  Venezuela, 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia  into  a great  republic. 
In  1824  he  was  in  Peru,  where  he  received  a message  from  the 
Colombian  Congress  informing  him  that  on  account  of  his 
absence  he  could  no  longer  be  recognized  as  the  president  of 
Colombia.  He  continued,  however,  in  Peru,  forming  upper 
Peru,  or  Bolivia,  into  a republic,  naming  Sucre  as  president. 
In  1825  he  returned  to  Lima,  where  he  was  received  with  great 
enthusiasm.  Here  he  devoted  himself  to  the  assembling  of  a 
Pan-American  Congress,  to  meet  at  Panama,  and  invited  dele- 
gates from  Peru,  Chile,  Mexico,  and  Buenos  Ayres  to  attend. 

176 


THE  BACKWARD  STATES 


177 


The  inefficiency  of  the  government  of  the  states  to  the  north 
finally  induced  him  to  return  thither,  and  he 
simo^BoUvaj3  °f  left  Lima  in  November,  1826.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Bogota  he  was  again  proclaimed  sole 
ruler,  but  his  scheme  for  a greater  Colombia  failed.  The  rulers 
he  left  in  Peru  and  Bolivia  were  overthrown  soon  after  his 
departure,  while  in  1829  the  towns  in  Venezuela  one  after 
another  declared  their  separation  from  Colombia.  In  1830 
Ecuador  also  withdrew  and  another  independent  republic  was 
established.  Bolivar  now  proposed  that  a Bourbon  prince  be 
crowned  ruler  at  Bogota,  as  a last  effort  to  unite  the  several 
states,  but  this  likewise  came  to  naught.  In  1830  Bolivar 
resigned  his  authority  and  retired  to  Cartagenia,  from  whence 
he  expected  to  sail  for  Europe.  Before,  however,  he  could  get 
away  he  was  seized  with  consumption  and  died,  still  a young 
man  of  forty-seven. 

Bolivar  is  considered  by  the  South  Americans  as  the  greatest 
of  the  American  liberators.  They  think  of  him  much  as  we 
think  of  Washington,  though  he  was  a very  different  man  from 
our  Washington.  In  his  ambitions  he  was  nearer  like  Napoleon. 
He  was  indifferent  to  money,  but  craved  power.  Like  Napo- 
leon, he  won  the  devotion  of  the  people  and  was  the  only  one 
of  the  revolutionary  leaders  who  succeeded  in  gathering  about 
him  a group  of  able  lieutenants,  devoted  to  himself  and  to  the 
work  of  winning  independence.  In  many  respects  he  was  of 
An  Estimate  of  statesmanship  proportions,  though  his  great- 

BoliTar  est  dream,  the  creation  of  a great  South 

American  confederation,  was  never  realized.  He  had  some 
personal  qualities  which  do  not  attract  North  Americans  to 
him.  He  was  on  many  occasions  bloodthirsty  and  cruel, 
but  he  was  also  generous  and  brave.  He  was  impetuous  and 
sensual,  living  during  his  later  years  with  a concubine. 
Although  he  was  a disciple  of  Rousseau,  and  believed  in  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people,  yet  in  order  to  bring  about  order  he 
was  willing  to  create  a monarchy.  On  his  deathbed  he  wrote: 
“I  blush  to  admit  it,  but  independence  is  the  only  benefit  we 
have  achieved,  and  that  has  been  at  the  cost  of  all  others. 
Our  constitutions  are  books,  our  laws  papers,  our  elections 


178 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


combats,  and  life  itself  a torment.  We  shall  arrive  at  such  a 
state  that  no  foreign  nation  will  condescend  to  conquer  us,  and 
we  shall  be  governed  by  petty  tyrants.”  Thus  did  the  great 
liberator  clearly  foresee  the  nature  of  the  first  decade  of  South 
American  independence. 


Venezuela 


Paez,  1830-1849 


The  period  of  the  military  dictators  in  Venezuela  lasted 
almost  down  to  our  own  day.  At  the  death  of  Bolivar  all 
thought  of  reunion  with  Colombia  came  to  an  end  and  Vene- 
zuela began  her  independent  career.  Her  separation  was  largely 
due  to  the  ambitions  of  Paez,  who  had  been  a lieutenant  of 
Bolivar.  Paez  became  the  first  president  in  1830,  and  remained 
the  dominating  figure  in  Venezuela  for  twenty  years.  He  had 
come  into  prominence  as  the  leader  of  horsemen  of  the  plains 
during  the  revolution,  and  was  himself  a 
half-breed  Indian.  After  the  death  of  Boli- 
var, Venezuela  began  to  pay  honor  to  the  great  liberator,  and 
in  1842  his  body  was  removed  to  Caracas,  his  native  city, 
where  it  was  placed  in  the  Temple  of  San  Francisco.  Paez 
was  driven  from  the  country  in  1849  by  General  Jose  Monagas, 
who  had  been  nominated  by  Paez  in  1847  for  the  presidency. 
For  ten  years  Monagas  was  supreme,  and  during  these  years  a 
number  of  important  reforms  were  brought  about,  one  being 
the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty  for  political  offenses,  and 
another  the  abolition  of  slavery.  Both  Paez  and  Monagas 
represented  the  conservative  party  and  ruled  as  practical  dic- 
tators, but  as  early  as  1840  a liberal  reaction  began  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution  of 
1830. 


Until  1850  Venezuela  had  been  a centralized  republic,  but 
in  that  year  a revolution  broke  out,  headed  by  General  Falcon 
and  Guzman-Bianco,  which  finally  succeeded,  after  four  years 
of  war,  in  overthrowing  the  centralized  government.  A federal 
republic  was  then  established.  In  1870  Guzman-Bianco,  the 
son  of  a former  leader  of  the  liberal  party,  came  into  power, 
and  he  dominated  affairs  for  another  twenty  years.  Blanco 
has  been  termed  a beneficent  despot,  for  during  his  adminis- 


THE  BACKWARD  STATES 


179 


Guzman-Bianco, 

1870-1890 


tration  Venezuela  experienced  a period  of  orderly  government 
and  material  progress,  such  as  she  had  not 
previously  had.  He  fostered  education,  re- 
formed the  civil  and  penal  codes,  established 
civil  marriage,  and  furthered  the  building  of  highways  and  rail- 
roads. The  army  was  reformed,  credit  was  restored,  and  at 
the  end  of  his  first  administration,  in  1877,  the  country  was  at 
peace  and  prosperity  was  everywhere  manifest.  In  1878  he 
came  back  to  power  through  a revolution,  and  ruled  as  dic- 
tator until  his  overthrow  in  1889.  He  occasionally  permitted 
someone  else  to  be  president,  though  he  always  found  pretext 
for  intervention.  The  governors  of  the  states  were  his  tools, 
and  he  took  care  that  the  members  of  Congress  should  be  men 
who  would  do  his  bidding. 

Guzman-Bianco  was  overthrown  in  1889  by  a revolt  headed 
by  Rojas  Paul,  while  Paul,  in  turn,  was  overthrown  by  An- 
dueza,  and  he  by  Crespo,  and  Crespo  by  Andrada.  In  1899 
the  most  notorious  of  the  recent  rulers  of  Venezuela  eame  into 
power  in  the  person  of  Castro,  who  remained 
dictator  until  1908.  His  administration  has 
particular  interest  for  the  United  States,  because  of  the  diplo- 
matic troubles  which  grew  out  of  the  claims  of  Great  Britain, 
Italy,  and  Germany.  This  dispute  led  to  President  Roosevelt’s 
threat  to  enforce  the  Monroe  Doctrine  against  Germany,  even 
at  the  expense  of  sending  down  American  battleships. 

Venezuela  has  not  yet  gone  beyond  the  period  of  the  military 
dictators,  and  in  many  respects  is  one  of  the  most  backward  of 
the  South  American  states.  The  latter  dictators,  especially  Cas- 
tro, plundered  the  country,  and  have  done  little  to  improve  the 
material  conditions. 

Colombia 

In  the  year  following  the  death  of  Bolivar  the  Republic  of 
New  Granada  was  founded,  both  Ecuador  and  Venezuela 
having  already  withdrawn  from  the  confederation,  which  had 
been  established  by  the  great  liberator.  A constitution  was 
formulated  in  1832  and  General  Santander 
became  the  first  president.  At  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  administration  of  Santander,  in  1836,  an  absolute 


Castro 


Colombia,  1829-1849 


180 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


obligarchy  was  established  in  which  the  clergy  were  given 
large  influence.  In  1841  the  Jesuits  were  restored  and  the 
Liberal  clauses  of  the  constitution  were  disregarded.  For  the 
first  twenty  years  of  Colombian  independence  the  Conserva- 
tive party  was  in  power,  and  during  this  period  the  work  of 
organization  was  performed. 

Following  the  period  of  conservative  control  came  a liberal 
government.  A new  constitution  was  formed  in  1853,  in  which 
the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  suffrage,  as  well  as  the.  separation 
of  the  church  and  state,  were  guaranteed.  Following  the  adop- 
tion of  this  constitution  the  Jesuits  were  expelled,  slavery  abol- 
ished, and  other  reforms  accomplished.  The  two  names  most 
conspicuous  in  the  history  of  Colombia  during  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  are  General  Mosquera,  who  was  pres- 
ident three  times  from  1845  to  1867,  and  Rafael  Nunez,  like- 
Mosquera,  1845-1867;  wise  president  for  three  terms,  from  1880  to 
Rafael  Nunez,  1895.  Mosquera  was  instrumental  in  bring- 

1880-1895  ing  about  considerable  material  progress.  In 

his  administrations  railroads  were  constructed,  steam  navigation 
commenced  on  the  Magdalena,  the  finances  were  organized, 
while  adequate  provision  was  made  for  the  national  debt,  and 
the  prestige  of  the  country  greatly  improved.  He,  however, 
was  a dictator  and  made  little  pretense  at  observing  the  con- 
stitutional limitations.  Nunez  at  one  time  had  been  secretary 
to  Mosquera  and  had  served  his  country  both  as  president  of 
the  Senate  and  in  the  diplomatic  service.  He  became  president 
in  1880.  In  1886,  after  a period  of  revolution,  a new  constitu- 
tion was  proclaimed  which  abolished  the  Federal  Republic, 
the  states  became  departments,  and  the  president  appointed 
the  governors.  This  has  been  the  last  change  in  the  consti- 
tution. 

Colombia  has  had  twenty-seven  civil  wars,  which  have  cost 
thirty-seven  million  pesos  (gold).  The  civil  wars  in  Colombia 
have  been  fought  for  principle  perhaps  more  than  those  of  the 
other  republics.  Calderon  thus  characterizes 
Colombia’s  political  history:  “In  Colombia 
exalted  convictions  are  the  motives  of  politi- 
cal enmities;  men  abandon  fortune  and  family,  as  in  the  great 


Colombia’s 

Revolutions 


THE  BACKWARD  STATES 


181 


religious  periods  of  history,  to  hasten  the  defense  of  a principle. 
These  hidalgoes  waste  the  country  and  fall  nobly,  with  the 
Semitic  ardor  of  Spanish  crusaders.  . . . Colombia  perishes, 
but  the  truth  is  saved.” 

In  1899  a series  of  revolutionary  movements  began  which 
continued  until  1903.  This  movement  was  fathered  by  the 
Liberal  party,  which  was  desirous  of  wresting  the  power  from 
the  conservatives,  who  had  been  in  control  more  or  less  con- 
stantly since  1867.  Fighting  went  on  with  great  fierceness, 
the  government  troops  generally  winning  the  battles.  On 
several  occasions  foreign  troops  had  to  be 
^^9031Uti°n  °f  landed  to  protect  foreign  interests,  as  was 
the  case  at  Colon  and  Panama,  to  protect 
the  operations  of  the  Panama  Railroad.  On  the  final  over- 
throw of  the  revolutionists,  the  country  was  in  a deplorable 
condition.  Tens  of  thousands  of  lives  had  been  destroyed,  as 
well  as  property  and  trade.  In  many  towns  and  villages  prac- 
tically the  entire  male  population  was  wiped  out.  This  revolu- 
tion has  a particular  bearing  upon  the  United  States,  because 
it  was  during  its  progress  that  the  United  States  was  nego- 
tiating with  Colombia  for  the  Panama  Canal  Zone. 

Following  the  Panama  negotiations,  General  Reyes,  who  had 
gained  distinction  as  the  special  envoy  of  Colombia  to  the 
United  States  to  protest  against  the  recognition  of  Panama, 
became  the  president.  He  found  the  country  in  an  exhausted 
condition,  and  determined  to  bring  about  re- 
™MaMeyeab0a  form  by  introducing  the  methods  and  policy 
of  General  Diaz,  the  Mexican  dictator.  Ac- 
cordingly, an  assembly  was  called  to  revise  the  constitution, 
the  term  of  the  presidency  was  lengthened  to  ten  years,  with 
no  restrictions  as  to  reelection,  and  Reyes  became  the  dictator 
of  Colombia.  As  a whole,  this  seems  to  be  a solution,  for  a time 
at  least,  of  some  of  Colombia’s  problems.  But  Colombia,  like 
Venezuela,  has  never  gotten  beyond  the  dictator  stage  in  her 
political  development. 

Ecuador 

Ecuador  began  her  independent  career  as  a province  of 
Greater  Colombia  after  the  battle  of  Pichincha,  and  this  was 


182 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


her  status  until  1830,  when  the  Republic  of  Ecuador  was 
founded  by  General  Juan  Jose  Flores,  a lieutenant  of  Bolivar. 
For  fifteen  years  Flores  governed  the  country,  though  they 
were  years  of  rebellion  and  turbulence.  He  was  elected  pres- 
ident three  times,  in  1831,  1839,  and  in  1843.  Rocafuerte,  the 
leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  formed  an  alliance  with  Flores, 
„ and  they  divided  the  public  functions  be- 

Ecuador,  1830-1860  * 

tween  them.  Rocafuerte  was  an  excellent 
administrator  and  did  something  toward  organizing  schools, 
and  carried  through  other  useful  reforms.  Flores,  however, 
was  a tyrant  who  cared  nothing  for  the  country  except  as  it 
gave  him  authority.  He  was  not  an  Ecuadorian,  though  he 
married  a wife  from  Quito.  In  1845  a liberal  revolution  broke 
out  which  was  successful  in  defeating  Flores,  who  on  his  defeat 
consented  to  take  820,000  and  a pension  and  leave  the  country. 
The  radicals,  under  the  leadership  of  Urbina,  now  tried  to  form 
a government,  and  after  promulgating  two  new  constitutions — 
making  six  in  twenty-two  years — they  were  overthrown  by 
Garcia-Moreno,  the  leader  of  the  Conservative  party. 

The  influence  of  Moreno  in  Ecuador  lasted  until  his  assassi- 
nation in  1875.  He  was  an  advocate  of  strong  government,  and 
in  the  matter  of  religion  and  education  was  a reactionary.  His 
first  term  ended  in  1865,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  three  weak 
presidents.  In  1870  he  was  again  elected  president  for  a term 
of  six  years,  but  his  assassination  in  1875  ended  his  career. 
Moreno  was  a devout  Catholic  and  did  everything  in  his  power 
to  restore  the  church.  Indeed,  his  administrations  may  be 
termed  clerical  dictatorships.  All  other  sects  except  the  Cath- 
olic were  excluded,  while  the  priests  and 

Ecuador  Since  1850  ...  . , . 

bishops  were  to  have  complete  supervision 
over  the  schools,  colleges,  and  universities.  On  the  overthrow 
of  Moreno  the  political  history  of  Ecuador  continued  on  its 
revolutionary  way.  The  Conservative  party  was  overthrown 
in  1877  and  the  Liberal  party  succeeded  to  power,  only  to  be 
overthrown  by  another  revolution  in  1883.  The  last  of  the 
dictators  of  Ecuador  was  General  Alfaro,  who  overthrew  the 
elected  president  in  1895  and  established  himself  in  power. 
He  inaugurated  a stem  anti-clerical  policy,  which  was  carried 


t 


THE  BACKWARD  STATES  183 

to  great  length  by  General  Plaza,  his  successor.  Civil  mar- 
riage and  divorce  were  introduced,  and  all  religions  were  placed 
on  the  same  footing  before  the  law,  while  another  measure 
declared  all  church  property  to  be  national  and  to  be  rented 
to  the  highest  bidder.  These  measures  led  to  another  revolu- 
tion (1905),  which  was  put  down  by  Alfaro,  who  made  himself 
dictator. 

Paraguay 

The  fourth  South  American  state  which  may  be  designated 
as  a dictatorship  is  Paraguay.  Paraguay  declared  its  inde- 
pendence in  1811  and  became  a despotism  from  the  beginning 
of  its  independence.  Dr.  Francia  was  the  first  dictator  who 
succeeded  in  freeing  the  country  not  only  from  Spain  but  also 
from  Buenos  Ayres.  At  first  the  government  was  in  the  hands 

of  two  consuls,  one  of  whom  was  Francia, 

The  First  Three  , . ’ 

Paraguayan  Dictators,  but,  like  Napoleon,  1 rancia  soon  obtained 
Francia  and  the  Two  supreme  power.  Francia  ruled  until  1840, 

Lopez,  1811-Z870  , , ; 

the  longest  dictatorship  in  South  American 
history.  He  was  succeeded  by  Carlos  Lopez,  who  ruled  until 
1860,  when  he  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francisco 
Lopez.  Under  the  latter  a war  broke  out  between  Brazil,  Ar- 
gentina, and  Uruguay,  as  allies,  against  Paraguay.  The  war 
lasted  from  1864  to  1870,  when  it  came  to  a close  through  the 
death  of  Lopez.  Every  male  capable  of  bearing  arms  was 
forced  to  fight,  and  whole  regiments  were  formed  of  mere  boys 
twelve  to  fifteen  years  old.  Women  were  used  as  beasts  of 
burden,  and  when  worn  out  were  left  by  the  roadside  to  die 
or  were  killed.  The  war  nearly  depopulated  the  country,  the 
population  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  being  1,337,439,  while 
at  its  close  there  were  but  28,746  men  and  106,254  women. 

The  war  left  Paraguay  prostrate  with  a large  debt.  Since 
the  war  Paraguay  has  been  ruled  by  presidents  under  a con- 
stitution, but  the  form  of  government  is  still  that  of  a dictator- 
ship, rather  than  a republic.  There  have  been  four  or  five 
revolutions  and  civil  wars,  but  none  have  been  serious.  The 
most  important  events  in  the  history  of  Paraguay  since  1870 
have  been  the  completion  of  Paraguay  Central  Railroad  in 
1906  and  financial  and  commercial  reforms. 


184 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Peru 

For  more  than  a year  after  the  overthrow  of  Spanish  power 
in  Peru,  Bolivar  was  dictator,  but  in  September,  1826,  he  was 
summoned  to  Colombia,  and  was  followed  by  all  the  Colombian 
troops.  On  the  departure  of  Bolivar,  General  Jos6  de  Lamar, 
the  commander  of  the  Peruvian  troops  at 
Dictators?1i8^7-i844  Ayacucho,  was  elected  president,  only  to  be 
deposed  in  1829,  after  a war  with  Colombia. 
From  1827  to  1844  Peru  was  in  the  grip  of  the  officers  who 
commanded  at  Ayacucho,  three  of  these  generals  in  turn  seizing 
the  supreme  power.  During  this  period  there  were  three  con- 
stitutions. Santa  Cruz,  the  president  of  Bolivia,  succeeded  in 
uniting  Peru  and  Bolivia  for  a time  (1836-1844),  when  the 
confederation  was  broken  largely  through  the  influence  of 
Chile. 

The  two  names  which  deserve  to  be  remembered  in  Peruvian 
history  from  1840  to  1880  are  General  Ramon  Castilla  (1845- 
1862)  and  Manuel  Pardo  (1872-1876).  After  a period  of  civil 
war  Castilla  restored  order,  and  his  administration  marks  the 
beginning  of  a new  period  of  stable  administration.  The  guano 
and  saltpeter  deposits  were  opened  up,  which  transformed  the 
commercial  and  financial  life  of  the  country.  Telegraph  lines 
and  the  first  Peruvian  railroad  were  built, 

General  Castilla  . . . 

(1845-1832)  and  while  the  financial  administration  was  put  on 
Manuel  Pardo  (1872-  a f}rm  basis.  Peru  made  progress  under 
President  Balta  (1863-1872),  who  continued 
the  building  of  public  works  and  railroads  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  country  became  bankrupt.  In  1872  Manuel  Pardo, 
an  enlightened  statesman,  became  president,  and  by  his  wise 
administration  did  much  for  the  country,  though  he  could  not 
save  it  from  bankruptcy.  He  completely  reformed  the  public 
service,  improved  educational  conditions,  reestablished  the  na- 
tional guard,  and  sought  to  build  up  a strong  alliance  with 
Argentina  and  Bolivia.  Altogether,  he  deserves  to  be  ranked 
as  one  of  the  great  South  American  leaders  since  independence. 

The  greatest  disaster  which  has  come  to  Peru  since  her  inde- 
pendence was  the  war  with  Chile,  which  occurred  during  the 
years  1879  to  1882.  The  pretext  of  the  war  was  a treaty  be- 


THE  BACKWARD  STATES 


185 


The  Chilean-Peruvian 
War,  1879-1883 


tween  Peru  and  Bolivia,  which  Chile  claimed  was  directly 
aimed  at  her.  The  real  cause,  however,  was  the  desire  of 
Chile  for  the  rich  guano  and  nitrate  deposits.  The  military 
operations  were  all  disastrous  to  Peru,  and 
after  three  serious  defeats,  in  1880  and  1881, 
the  Chilean  army  entered  Lima,  which  they 
continued  to  hold  until  1883.  The  government  of  Peru  was 
overthrown  and  it  was  only  with  the  help  of  the  Chilean  au- 
thorities that  a government  was  finally  organized,  and  a treaty 
of  peace  signed,  in  October,  1883.  The  principal  provisions  of 
the  treaty  were  the  absolute  cession  by  Peru  of  the  province 
of  Tarapaca,  and  the  occupation  for  a period  of  ten  years  of 
the  territories  of  Tacna  and  Arcia,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
the  final  ownership  of  the  territories  was  to  be  determined  by 
a popular  vote  of  the  inhabitants.  In  addition,  the  country 
retaining  possession  of  the  territories  was  to  pay  to  the  other 
the  sum  of  about  $5,000,000. 

For  ten  years  following  the  war  with  Chile  the  government 
was  largely  directed  by  General  Caceres,  who  had  been  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Peruvian  forces.  During  this  period 
he  was  elected  to  the  presidency  twice,  finally  being  overthrown 
by  a revolution  in  1895.  The  two  following  administrations, 
Pierola  (1895-1899)  and  Romana  (1899— 
1903),  were  peaceful,  on  the  whole,  for  the 
Peruvians  were  heartily  tired  of  war  and 
revolution,  and  there  were  many  and  serious  problems  facing 
the  country.  There  has  been  a boundary  dispute  between 
Ecuador,  Colombia,  and  Peru  over  a large  tract  of  uninhabited 
territory  in  the  vicinity  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon, 
which  was  finally  settled  by  referring  the  disputed  question 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  Spanish  crown. 

Peru  seems  to  have  passed  beyond  the  stage  of  the  military 
dictator  and  settled  and  orderly  government  has  prevailed  in 
recent  years.  Since  1895  a number  of  important  reform  meas- 
ures have  been  passed,  among  them  being  a modification  of  the 
marriage  laws  and  important  financial  reforms,  such  as  the 
establishment  of  the  gold  standard  as  the  basis  of  the  mone- 
tary system.  The  administration  of  Pierola  was  particularly 


Peru  Since  the  War 
with  Chile 


186 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


fruitful  in  bringing  about  these  reform  measures,  and  these 
years  have  been  characterized  as  the  Peruvian  Renaissance. 


Bolivia 

Bolivia  was  the  creation  of  Bolivar,  and  is  named  in  his 
honor.  A congress  was  assembled  in  1826  to  consider  the 
constitution  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  new  republic 
by  Bolivar.  The  congress  approved  it  and  General  Sucre  was 
chosen  president  for  life,  though  he  refused  to  accept  for  longer 
than  two  years,  and  then  only  on  condition  that  two  thousand 
Colombian  troops  be  permitted  to  remain.  Even  this  pre- 
caution was  not  successful  in  establishing  Sucre,  for  the  next 
year  (1827)  he  and  his  forces  were  driven  from  the  country, 
and  in  1828  Santa  Cruz  became  president, 
san^  cruz,C  1826^1845  Santa  Cruz  was  a half-breed,  and  loved  dis- 
play and  power.  He  continued  to  dominate 
Bolivian  affairs  until  1839,  and  during  this  period  Bolivia 
enjoyed  a more  or  less  stable  government.  He  reorganized 
the  army  and  restored  the  public  credit.  In  1836  he  united 
Peru  with  Bolivia  and  had  dreams  of  ruling  the  old  viceregal 
territories  from  Lima.  Through  the  interference  of  Chile,  how- 
ever, this  dream  was  shattered,  and  by  the  defeat  of  the  forces 
of  Santa  Cruz,  in  1838,  by  a Chilean  army  the  confederation 
was  destroyed.  The  end  of  Santa  Cruz’s  influence  came  in 
1845  when  he  retired  to  Europe,  though  later  when  he  at- 
tempted to  return  he  was  opposed  by  Chile  and  Peru. 

The  policy  instituted  by  Santa  Cruz  was  followed  by  his 
successors,  though  on  his  overthrow  a liberal  constitution  was 
proclaimed,  and  Negro  slavery  was  abolished.  General  Balli- 
vian  became  president  in  1840  and  continued  in  power  until 
1848,  when  he  was  overthrown  by  a revolution,  and  General 
Belzu,  an  ignorant  and  violent  soldier,  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  himself  as  dictator. 
This  was  a period  of  anarchy.  Foreign 
treaties  were  disregarded,  while  guerrilla  bands  were  per- 
mitted to  raid  the  country  unhindered,  and  “rapine,  robbery, 
and  riot”  became  almost  the  normal  condition.  Belzu  finally 
resigned  and  was  followed  by  his  son-in-law,  who  attempted 


BaUivlan  and  Belzu, 
1840-1864 


THE  BACKWARD  STATES 


187 


to  reform  the  worst  abuses,  but  with  little  success.  On  his 
overthrow  General  Acha  came  to  the  presidency,  and  at- 
tempted to  rule  for  a period,  but  the  country  seemed  in  hope- 
less confusion. 

The  tyrant  who  ruled  Bolivia  from  1864  to  1871  was  Mel- 
garejo,  who  made  no  pretense  at  governing  according  to  the 
constitution.  He  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  General  Morelos, 
the  successful  leader  of  the  revolution  which  overthrew  Mel- 
garejo.  In  1876  General  Daza  became  president  and  ruled 
until  the  Chilean  war,  when  on  the  first  defeat  he  was  over- 
thrown. In  the  Chilean-Peruvian  war  Bo- 

Chilean-Peruvian  War  llVla  WaS  the  a%  °f  PerU  and  WaS  the  chlef 

sufferer,  for  as  a result  of  her  defeat  she  lost 
the  seacoast  provinces,  and  since  that  time  has  been  a land- 
locked nation.  Bolivia  was  occupied  by  Chilean  soldiers,  who 
continued  in  the  country  until  the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed. 
In  the  war  Bolivia  not  only  lost  her  seacoast  but  also  her  rich 
guano  and  nitrate  fields. 

Since  the  war  Bolivia  has  enjoyed  a period  of  peace  and 
security,  and  there  has  been  an  earnest  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  government  to  meet  the  problems  which  face  the  coun- 
try. In  1895  a treaty  was  made  with  Chile,  and  attempts 
have  been  made  to  adjust  the  question  of 
the  two  provinces,  Tacna  and  Arcia,  which 
were  taken  during  the  Chilean  war  from  Peru.  A long- 
standing boundary  dispute  with  Brazil  over  rubber  lands  has 
been  settled  by  the  cession  of  a part  of  the  province  of  Acre 
to  Brazil,  on  Brazil’s  payment  of  a cash  indemnity  of  $10,000,- 
000.  Bolivia  finally  has  signed  an  agreement  with  Chile  giving 
to  Chile  permanent  possession  of  the  two  seacoast  provinces, 
and  thus  Bolivia  has  lost  all  prospect  of  securing  an  outlet  to 
the  sea. 

READING  REFERENCES 


Recent  Problems 


For  general  accounts  of  the  History  of  the  South  American  Republics 
since  independence  South  American  Republics,  by  Thomas  C.  Dawson, 
will  be  found  satisfactory. 

History  of  South  America,  1854-1904,  by  Charles  Edmond  Akers  (1904), 
will  be  serviceable  for  the  period  covered. 

Briefer  accounts  are  Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol.  XII,  Chapter 


188 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


XXI,  and  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  by  Justin  Winsor, 
Vol.  VIII. 

A brilliant  summing  up  and  an  interpretation  of  Latin  American  His- 
tory is  Latin  America,  Its  Rise  and  Progress,  by  F.  Garcia  Calderon  (1915). 

History  of  South  America,  by  W.  H.  Koebel  (1913),  will  also  be  useful. 

Some  books  on  special  states  are:  Venezuela,  by  L.  V.  Dalton  (1912); 
Colombia,  by  P.  J.  Elder  (1913);  Ecuador,  by  C.  R.  Enock  (1914);  Peru, 
by  C.  R.  Enock  (1912);  Bolivia,  by  P.  Walle  (1914);  The  Colombian  and 
Venezuelan  Republics,  by  A.  H.  Verrill  (1910). 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  RISE  OF  PROGRESSIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN 
STATES 

For  the  purpose  of  classification  we  have  divided  the  South 
American  States  into  two  classes,  the  backward  and  the  pro- 
gressive. In  the  first  group  we  have  included  Venezuela,  Co- 
lombia, Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Paraguay,  while  in  the 
second  group  are  Argentina,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Chile.  This 
classification  holds  good  not  only  in  a political  sense  but  also 
in  their  economic  and  industrial  development.  The  states 
were  alike  in  that  they  all  passed  through  a time  of  anarchy. 

Classification  of  the  The  causes  for  this  Period  of  anarchy  were 

south  American  not  always  the  same,  but  the  events  during 

States  this  period,  in  each  of  the  states,  were  more 

or  less  similar.  One  of  the  great  underlying  causes  for  the 
revolutions  in  the  western  and  northwestern  states  was  the 
great  variety  of  races.  The  half-breeds  and  the  Indians  lived 
outside  the  chief  towns  and  cities,  while  the  Creoles  and  other 
pure-blooded  whites  controlled  the  centers  of  population,  and 
therefore  the  government.  In  each  republic  there  always  de- 
veloped two  parties,  the  one  with  liberal  doctrines  and  the 
other  conservative,  but  in  most  instances  principle  had  little 
part  in  the  struggles,  the  chief  object  being  simply  to  gain  the 
control  of  the  government. 


Argentina 

The  early  history  of  the  republic  of  Argentina  is  filled  with 
trouble  and  disturbances.  On  the  independence  of  Argentina 
in  1816  two  parties  at  once  came  into  existence,  the  one  fav- 
orable to  strong  central  government,  made  up  mostly  of  the 
Early  Years  of  inhabitants  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  coast 

Argentine  independ-  district,  while  the  other  party  favored  a 

ence,  1810-1824  federal  government  in  which  the  provinces 

were  to  be  granted  a large  degree  of  self-government.  We 

189 


190 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


have  already  noted  the  confusion  in  the  early  years  of  Argen- 
tina independence.  The  first  form  of  government  was  the 
Junta  organized  in  1810;  this  was  followed  by  the  triumvirate 
in  1813;  and  this  in  turn  gave  place  to  a Directory  in  1819. 
Finally,  in  1824,  the  executive  power  was  vested  in  a pres- 
ident, and  Bernardino  Rivadavia  was  chosen  for  that  office. 

Rivadavia  was  inaugurated  on  February  7,  1825,  and  con- 
tinued in  office  until  his  resignation  in  1827.  He  represented 
the  Centralist  party  and  governed  largely  in  the  interest  of 
Buenos  Ayres  and  the  seaboard,  and  neglected  the  provinces. 
During  his  administration  Buenos  Ayres  engaged  in  a war 
with  Brazil  over  Uruguay,  as  a result  of 

Succe sJors^i 82^- 1 83 5 which  Brazil  gave  UP  her  claim  to  Uruguay 
and  it  became  an  independent  republic.  On 
the  resignation  of  Rivadavia  he  was  succeeded  by  two  pres- 
idents representing  the  Federalist  party,  and  as  a result  of 
their  carrying  out  the  Federalist  idea,  Argentina  was  split  up 
into  a number  of  independent  or  quasi-independent  provinces, 
while  the  president  had  little  power  outside  Buenos  Ayres. 
This  situation  finally  led  to  a civil  war  out  of  which  came  a 
remarkable  leader,  Juan  Manuel  de  Rosas.  Gradually  Rosas 
gathered  all  the  power  into  his  own  hands  and  in  1835  became 
dictator. 

The  dictatorship  of  Rosas  continued  until  1852.  He  was 
“the  creator  of  Argentina  nationality.”  He  stirred  up  divi- 
sion among  the  governors  of  the  states,  “stimulated  their 
mutual  hatred,”  and  presided  over  their  quarrels,  and  finally 
succeeded  in  building  up  a strong  government.  In  1839  a 
revolution  was  begun,  headed  by  the  leader  of  the  Unitarian 
party,  but  by  1841  the  revolt  was  crushed 
of  Rosas’  and  Lavalle,  the  leader,  captured  and  shot. 
In  many  ways  Rosas  was  reactionary,  and 
attempted  to  close  the  rivers  to  foreign  trade.  This  led  to  the 
intervention  of  France  and  England.  Finally,  in  1852,  Rosas 
was  overthrown,  largely  through  the  instrumentality  of  one  of 
his  former  followers,  Urquiza.  Urquiza  succeeded  in  getting 
the  help  of  both  Uruguay  and  Brazil,  and  at  the  head  of  an 
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PROGRESSIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES  191 


defeated  Rosas,  who  fled  into  exile  on  an  English  ship.  Three 
times  previously  had  Urquiza  attempted  to  overthrow  the 
tyrant,  but  each  time  he  had  failed,  and  it  was  not  until  out- 
side help  was  secured  that  he  was  at  last  successful. 

During  the  rule  of  Rosas  the  country  had  made  considerable 
progress.  The  population  of  Buenos  Ayres  had  doubled,  while 
as  many  as  thirty  thousand  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  had 
come  out  to  engage  in  sheep-raising,  and  had  mostly  settled  in 
Buenos  Ayres  province.  On  the  overthrow  of  Rosas  the  peo- 
ple were  heartily  sick  of  war  and  military  rule  and  were  ready 
to  accept  a government  which  would  permit  industry  and 
commerce  to  make  headway.  Urquiza  be- 
185*3-^859  °f  Ur,ui“’  came  the  director  of  the  confederation,  but 
he  displayed  no  desire  to  play  the  role  of 
Rosas.  The  governors  of  the  provinces  met  and  agreed  to  call 
a constitutional  convention  at  Santa  Fe,  as  a precaution 
against  the  influence  of  Buenos  Ayres.  On  May  1,  1853,  a 
constitution  was  adopted,  copied  largely  after  that  of  the 
United  States,  and  has  continued  to  be  the  fundamental  law  of 
Argentina.  Urquiza  was  elected  the  first  president  under  this 
new  constitution,  though  Buenos  Ayres  refused  to  so  recognize 
him.  In  1859  Buenos  Ayres  marched  an  army  to  attack  the 
federal  government,  but  was  defeated  by  Urquiza.  The  next 
year  (1860)  the  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres  swore  to  support 
the  federal  constitution,  and  by  that  act  entered  the  con- 
federation. 

This,  however,  was  not  to  be  the  end  of  the  struggle  between 
Buenos  Ayres  and  the  provinces.  In  1861  hostilities  again 
broke  out.  This  time  the  provincials  were  defeated  and  Gen- 
eral Mitre,  the  governor  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  commander 
of  the  Buenos  Ayres  forces,  became  the  president.  In  1865 
Argentina  was  forced  into  the  war  against  Paraguay  by  the 
Administration  of  tyrant  of  Paraguay  demanding  the  right  of 
General  Mitre,  1862-  marching  across  Argentine  territory.  Lopez 
had  counted  upon  receiving  aid  against  Mitre 
from  Urquiza,  but  in  this  he  was  disappointed,  as  Urquiza 
refused  to  revolt  against  the  central  government,  but  in  many 
ways  gave  the  president  aid.  During  Mitre’s  administration 


192 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Argentina  began  that  industrial  development  which  has  made 
her  in  recent  years  the  greatest  exporting  nation  in  the  world 
in  proportion  to  population.  In  1868  Sarmiento  was  elected 
to  the  presidency  at  an  election  which  is  said  to  have  been 
“the  freest  and  most  peaceful  ever  held  in  the  republic.” 

The  contest  between  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  prov- 
inces reached  a crisis  between  1870  and  1880.  At  each  election 
the  two  parties,  one  representing  the  provinces  and  the  other 
the  city,  put  up  their  candidates,  and  bitter  contests  ensued. 
As  the  election  of  1880  drew  near  it  became  evident  that  a 
revolt  was  imminent.  Buenos  Ayres  had  organized  military 
companies,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  train  all  ablebodied 
young  men  for  war.  The  federal  government  became  alarmed 
General  Roca  and  and  ordered  them  to  disband.  In  the  mean- 

Federaiization  of  time  the  outlying  provinces  had  organized, 

Buenos  Ayres  calling  themselves  the  Cordoba  League. 

Their  forces  were  led  by  General  Roca,  an  Indian  fighter  of 
great  skill,  who  was  the  federal  candidate  for  president.  In 
July  Roca  forced  his  way  into  the  capital  and  the  city  at  once 
submitted.  In  October,  1880,  Roca  became  president  and  at  once 
took  steps  to  make  Buenos  Ayres  the  property  of  the  national 
government,  while  the  provincial  capital  of  Buenos  Ayres  prov- 
ince was  moved  to  La  Plata.  This  was  a most  wise  step  and 
has  since  proved  an  important  factor  in  cementing  the  nation. 

Following  the  term  of  President  Roca  came  a weak  and  in- 
competent president,  Celman,  during  whose  administration  car- 
pet-baggers from  the  provinces  controlled  the  government.  In 
1890  Celman  was  overthrown  by  a revolution  headed  by  the 
best  men  of  the  country,  and  since  that  time  Argentina  has 
been  blessed  by  a succession  of  capable  presi- 
dents. Since  1890  there  have  been  two 
serious  boundary  disputes,  one  with  Brazil 
and  the  other  with  Chile,  but  fortunately  both  were  settled  by 
arbitration.  To  commemorate  the  boundary  settlement  between 
Chile  and  Argentina  the  two  republics  united  in  the  erection 
of  the  beautiful  Christ  of  the  Andes,  which  stands  on  the 
boundary  line,  at  the  highest  point  of  the  Andes  pass,  between 
the  two  republics. 


Recent  Argentina 
History 


PROGRESSIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES  193 


Chile 

O’Higgins  became  the  head  of  the  first  independent  govern- 
ment of  Chile  with  the  title  of  director-general.  He  conducted 
the  government  without  paying  much  attention  to  democratic 
usages,  and  as  a consequence  became  very  unpopular  and  was 
Early  Period  of  compelled  to  resign  in  1823.  From  1823  to 
Chilean  independ-  1830  there  were  no  less  than  ten  governments, 
ence,  1817-1830  with  three  different  constitutions.  From  1827 
to  1829  there  were  five  revolutions,  and  the  country  was  in  a 
most  chaotic  condition.  “The  Chilean  people  went  from  lib- 
erty to  license,  and  from  license  to  barbarism.”  The  man 
chiefly  responsible  for  the  ending  of  this  disorder  was  Diego 
Portales,  who  has  been  rightly  called  the  founder  of  the  Chilean 
nation. 

The  career  of  Portales  was  short,  but  his  influence  was  far- 
reaching.  He  represented  the  Conservative  party  and  stood 
for  a strong  government.  He  was  a practical  business  man 
and  never  desired  to  be  president.  In  1831  General  Prieto,  a 
leader  of  a successful  revolution,  was  elected  president,  and 
Portales  became  his  chief  minister.  Guided  by  this  great 
minister,  Chile  rapidly  became  an  ordered  country.  He  de- 
stroyed the  bandits  who  infested  the  country,  established 
Period  of  the  finances  on  a stable  basis,  and  organized 

conservative  Power,  schools.  In  1833  a new  constitution  was 
1831-1861  adopted,  largely  the  work  of  Portales,  which 

created  a strong  executive,  and  gave  power  into  the  hands  of 
the  great  landholders.  There  followed  now  a period  of  con- 
servative power  in  which  the  people  had  little  to  do  with  the 
government,  but  as  a whole  it  was  a period  of  advance.  In 
1836  Chile  became  involved  in  a war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
in  which  Chile  was  victorious,  and  added  to  her  territory  at 
the  expense  of  Bolivia.  This  was  also  a period  of  industrial 
progress  and  commercial  growth.  Steamship  lines  were  estab- 
lished along  the  coast,  while  railroads,  telegraph  lines,  and 
wagon  roads  were  constructed.  Schools  were  also  built,  and 
a national  bank  established.  The  three  presidents  during 
this  period  were  Prieto  (1831-1841),  Manuel  Bulnes  (1841- 
1851),  and  Manuel  Montt  (1851-1861). 


194 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  period  in  Chilean  history  from  1861  to  1891  may  be 
termed  the  period  of  liberal  control.  During  the  closing  years 
of  the  preceding  period  a strong  Liberal  party  had  been  grow- 
ing up,  favorable  to  a larger  degree  of  self-government.  General 
Montt  toward  the  close  of  his  administration  had  adopted 
more  liberal  ideas,  and  in  1861  Perez  became  president,  to  be 
followed  in  1871  by  Errazuriz,  and  he  in  turn  in  1876  by  Pinto, 
all  liberal  presidents.  While  all  of  these 
Con tooi,°  1 86 1"- 1 89 1 presidents  were  liberals  in  their  party  affilia- 

tions, yet  their  liberalism  did  not  lessen  the 
power  of  the  presidents  or  change  the  constitution.  Some  con- 
stitutional changes  were  made,  however,  one  forbidding  the 
reelection  of  presidents.  During  these  years  Chile  continued 
to  prosper  along  all  lines.  Schools  were  built,  railroads  and 
telegraphs  were  greatly  extended,  and  prosperity  along  many 
lines  had  free  course.  The  explanation  of  the  peace  and  order 
which  prevailed  in  Chile,  while  the  rest  of  South  America  was 
struggling  with  anarchy,  is  the  fact  that  Chile  adopted  a con- 
servative constitution  and  long-term  presidencies.  Chilean 
history  is  largely  free  from  those  petty  revolutions  and  civil 
struggles  which  abound  in  most  of  the  other  South  American 
states. 

The  most  important  event  in  the  history  of  Chile  was  the 
war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia  (1879-1883).  The  combined  popu- 
lations of  Peru  and  Bolivia  were  nearly  double  that  of  Chile, 
and  besides,  the  Chilean  treasury  was  empty,  and  the  country 
in  a poor  condition  to  begin  a war.  The  immediate  cause  of 
the  war  was  the  treatment  of  Chilean  Nitrate 
Companies  by  the  Bolivian  government, 
which  came  to  a climax  in  1879  with  the 
seizure  of  the  property  of  the  Chilean  Nitrate  Company  at 
Antofagasta.  The  first  part  of  the  war  was  indecisive,  but 
when  the  Chilean  navy  succeeded  in  destroying  the  ironclad 
vessels  of  Peru  the  war  broke  in  Chile’s  favor.  The  fighting 
continued  through  1882,  but  a peace  was  not  signed  until 
1884,  the  provisions  of  which  have  already  been  given.  Chile 
changed  presidents  during  the  war,  General  Pinto  giving  place 
in  1881  to  Santa  Maria. 


PROGRESSIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES  195 


Under  the  administration  and  urging  of  President  Santa 
Maria  a number  of  very  important  reforms  were  voted.  In 
his  message  to  the  Congress  in  1883  he  urged  the  passage  of  a 
law  legalizing  civil  marriage  and  the  registration  of  births  and 
the  freeing  of  cemeteries  from  Catholic  control.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  one  of  the  greatest  names  in  Chilean  history  came 
into  prominence  in  the  person  of  the  prime  minister  Balma- 
ceda.  These  liberal  laws  were  pushed  through  Congress  against 
the  stubborn  opposition  of  the  conservative  elements  and  the 
priesthood.  After  the  passage  of  the  liberal 
Bab^ace4a!ai88i-i89i  ^aws  the  president  and  his  Cabinet  were  ex- 
communicated, and  every  effort  was  made  by 
the  Conservative  party  and  the  Catholic  Church  to  defeat 
Balmaceda,  who  now  became  the  candidate  of  the  Liberal 
party  for  the  presidency.  This  opposition,  however,  was  in 
vain,  for  Balmaceda  was  elected  in  1886.  He  planned  great 
things  for  Chile.  Now  that  Chile  had  the  benefit  of  the  nitrate 
fields,  her  treasury  was  full,  and  railroad  building,  erection  of 
public  buildings,  and  the  building  of  ships  was  the  order  of  the 
day.  In  the  midst  of  this  ambitious  program  Balmaceda  found 
that  by  1889  a majority  of  Congress  had  become  opposed  to 
him,  and  there  began  to  be  a strong  feeling  against  the  pres- 
ident among  the  congressmen.  This  condition  went  from  bad 
to  worse  until  1891,  when  a civil  war  between  the  president 
and  Congress  suddenly  broke  out. 

The  crisis  was  brought  about  by  Balmaceda  appointing  a 
Cabinet  made  up  of  personal  friends  and  refusing  to  dismiss 
them  when  Congress  passed  a vote  of  censure.  Since  the  days 
of  Portales  Congress  had  practically  controlled  the  presidency, 
and  Balmaceda  now  determined  to  free  it  from  that  control. 
Congress  refused  to  pass  appropriation  bills,  and  the  president 
continued  to  collect  taxes  and  maintain  the  public  service. 
This  was  the  test  which  was  laid  down  by  Congress,  and  when 
the  president  took  this  position  civil  war  was 
begun.  The  army  remained  true  to  Balma- 
ceda, while  the  navy  fought  on  the  side  of 
Congress.  The  revolutionists  seized  the  nitrate  fields,  and  thus 
had  a source  of  revenue  to  carry  on  their  operations.  The  con- 


Tbe  Great  Chilean 
Civil  War  of  i8gi 


196 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


gressional  sea  forces  could  strike  where  they  pleased  and  could 
move  much  faster  than  the  land  forces  under  Balmaceda.  In 
August  the  revolutionary  fleet  with  their  army  on  board  sud- 
denly appeared  before  Valparaiso;  on  August  27  the  Balma- 
cedists  were  overthrown,  while  Balmaceda  was  forced  to  take 
refuge  in  the  Argentine  legation,  where  he  remained  until 
September  18,  the  day  on  which  his  term  of  office  expired.  On 
the  morning  of  this  day  he  took  his  own  life.  The  civil  war 
had  cost  ten  thousand  lives  and  10,000,000  sterling.  The 
leader  of  the  revolt,  Admiral  Montt,  was  elected  president  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  having  been  chosen  by  a real  popular 
vote. 

Admiral  Montt  proved  to  be  a good  president,  and  used 
great  tact  in  dealing  with  the  followers  of  Balmaceda.  During 
this  administration  there  was  trouble  between  Chile  and  the 
United  States  over  a sailor’s  brawl  in  Valparaiso,  which  re- 
sulted, after  a great  deal  of  excitement,  in  Chile  being  com- 
pelled to  pay  the  United  States  $75,000, 
which  has  left  bad  feeling  against  the  United 
States.  In  1896  Errazuriz  became  president, 
serving  out  the  term  of  five  years;  Riesco,  a Liberal,  succeeded 
in  1901  and  was  followed  by  Pedro  Montt  in  1906.  There  are 
two  parties  in  Chile,  the  Liberal  and  the  Conservative,  though 
the  Conservatives  do  not  oppose  reforms.  There  have  been 
boundary  disputes  with  Argentina,  and  Argentina  has  been 
Chile’s  greatest  rival  along  other  lines,  but  fortunately  none 
of  these  disputes  have  resulted  in  war. 


Recent  Chilean 
History 


Brazil 

The  independence  of  Brazil  was  declared  in  1822,  when  the 
son  of  the  Portuguese  king  was  proclaimed  emperor  as  Pedro  I. 
The  Brazilians  were  much  divided  from  the  first.  On  the  one 
hand  they  feared  absolutism  if  they  supported  the  empire, 
while  on  the  other  they  feared  anarchy  if  the  empire  fell. 
Brazil  was  also  influenced  by  their  neighbors,  who  were  all 
setting  up  republican  governments,  and  there  arose  a Republi- 
can party,  which  was  only  suppressed  with  great  difficulty. 
There  was  also  difficulty  in  procuring  a constitution,  and  Brazil 


PROGRESSIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES  197 


The  Reign  of  Pedro  I, 
1822-1834 


almost  came  to  grief,  but  finally  an  instrument  of  government, 
framed  by  the  Council  of  State,  was  accepted 
by  the  emperor,  amidst  great  rejoicings  of 
the  people.  As  a whole  the  reign  of  Pedro 
I was  one  of  disaster.  The  war  fought  over  Uruguay  went 
against  Brazil,  and  she  was  forced,  largely  through  finan- 
cial reasons,  to  give  up  all  claim  to  that  province.  After  the 
war  the  ultra-liberals  obtained  a majority  in  the  Legislature, 
and  this  party  was  hostile  to  the  emperor,  and  disaffection  was 
everywhere  manifest.  Agitation  in  favor  of  a republic  was  re- 
newed, and  when  finally  the  emperor  attempted  to  retain  a 
Cabinet  favorable  to  absolutism,  public  indignation  meetings 
were  held,  which  were  joined  by  the  troops,  and  the  emperor  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  son,  then  a child  of  five  years. 
The  emperor  then  embarked  upon  an  English  ship  for  Portugal, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  unfortunate  to  the  end. 

Pedro  II,  who  now  became  the  Brazilian  emperor,  was  but  a 
child,  and  for  a period  of  nine  years  Brazil  was  ruled  by  a 
regency.  During  this  period  the  form  of  government  was 
practically  republican,  for  the  regents  were 
chosen  by  the  Legislature.  But  the  govern- 
ment under  the  regents  was  not  a success.  The  country  was  in 
the  grip  of  powerful  cabals,  and  to  end  this  Pedro  II  was  de- 
clared able  to  rule  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  Pedro  II  was  an 
enlightened  and  highly  educated  man,  and  was  much  inter- 
ested in  the  development  of  his  empire.  He  was  extremely 
liberal  in  his  tendencies,  and  was  much  interested  in  the  ad- 
vance of  education  and  the  economic  affairs  of  the  country. 

During  the  reign  of  Pedro  II  Brazil  was  drawn  into  two 
wars.  The  first  was  with  Argentina  over  the  old  question  of 
Uruguay.  In  1849  Rosas,  the  Argentine  dictator,  attempted 
to  unite  Uruguay  with  Argentina  with  the  result  that  Brazil 
and  Uruguay  united  their  forces  under  Urquiza,  and  Rosas  was 
overthrown.  The  other  was  war  with  Para- 
guay, which  we  have  already  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Argentina  and  Paraguay. 
The  dispute  between  Paraguay  and  Brazil 
arose  over  the  question  of  the  navigation  of  the  Paraguay 


Pedro  H,  1834-1889 


Brazil’s  Wars:  War 
with  Argentina,  1849; 
War  with  Paraguay, 
1855-1870 


198 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


River.  In  1855  Brazil  sent  a fleet  up  the  river  and  an  agree- 
ment was  finally  reached  between  the  two  countries.  The 
dictator  of  Paraguay,  however,  continued  to  throw  every  ob- 
stacle in  the  way  of  the  fulfillment  of  the  agreement.  Para- 
guay began  the  invasion  of  Brazil.  Argentina  and  Uruguay 
joined  forces  against  the  haughty  dictator,  but  so  well  was 
Paraguay  protected  that  the  combined  forces  of  the  three 
countries  were  not  able  to  crush  him  until  1870. 

Among  the  accomplishments  in  the  way  of  reform,  during 
the  reign  of  Pedro  II,  was  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade. 
This  was  accomplished  in  1853  with  the  help  of  Great  Britain, 
who  had  made  a treaty  with  Brazil  as  early  as  1826  looking  to 

Abolition  of  the  slave  that  end;  It  was  not,  however,  until  1848 
Trade  and  Anti-  that  sentiment  in  Brazil  was  strongly  aroused 
slavery  Agitation  against  the  traffic,  due  to  the  bringing  of 
yellow  fever  by  imported  slaves.  Along  with  the  agitation 
against  the  slave  trade  came  other  movements.  Pedro  was 
an  abolitionist  at  heart,  and  agitation  in  favor  of  gradual 
emancipation  began  as  early  as  1864.  The  number  of  slaves 
was  steadily  decreasing,  and  it  seemed  probable  that  the  insti- 
tution would  gradually  disappear.  In  1856  there  were  2,500,- 
000  slaves  in  Brazil,  but  by  1873  their  number  had  decreased 
to  1,500,000,  and  by  1887  there  were  only  750,000. 

During  these  years  there  were  two  parties  in  the  empire, 
the  Liberal  and  the  Conservative,  the  first  standing  for  election 
and  church  reforms,  and  abolition  of  slavery,  while  the  latter 
opposed  all  of  these  issues.  The  party  struggles  waxed  very 
warm  through  the  seventies  and  early  eighties,  and  the  em- 
peror was  harassed  beyond  measure.  By  1887  the  agitation  in 
favor  of  emancipation  had  become  too  great  to  be  overcome. 
Slaves  were  fleeing  from  the  plantations,  and  the  police  refused 
to  aid  in  their  capture.  Finally  the  emperor, 
sick  and  failing,  had  gone  to  the  United 
States,  leaving  his  daughter  Isabel  as  regent. 
When  Congress  met  in  May,  1888,  a bill  was 
introduced  providing  for  immediate  and  uncompensated  eman- 
cipation. The  law  passed  at  once  and  was  signed  by  the  regent. 
The  result  of  the  passage  of  the  law  was  the  overthrow  of  the 


The  Emancipation  of 
the  Slaves  and  the 
Overthrow  of  the 
Empire,  1888 


PROGRESSIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES  199 


empire.  By  favoring  the  bill  the  regent  had  alienated  the 
only  class  favorable  to  the  empire,  namely,  the  slaveholders, 
and  now  they  turned  against  the  empire.  Before  this  had 
happened  the  army  and  populace  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  had  be- 
come imbued  with  republican  doctrines.  The  two  men  chiefly 
responsible  for  the  overthrow  of  the  empire  were  General 
Benjamin  Constant,  a professor  in  the  military  school  at  Rio, 
who  had  thoroughly  imbued  the  young  officers  of  the  army 
with  republican  ideas,  and  General  Diodoro  de  Fonseca.  On 
November  14,  1888,  troops  surrounded  the  government  build- 
ings and  a republic  was  declared,  and  on  the  sixteenth  the 
emperor  and  his  family  were  placed  on  board  a vessel  and 
sent  to  Portugal. 

The  provinces  accepted  the  change  in  the  government  with- 
out any  disturbance.  New  governors  for  the  provinces  were 
named  by  telegraph,  while  the  royal  officials  turned  over  their 
offices  to  the  new  officials.  The  form  of  government  was  at 
first  a military  dictatorship,  which  continued  for  fourteen 
months,  when  the  new  constitution  was  promulgated.  It  was 
modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States,  and  provided  for 
universal  suffrage,  separation  of  church  and  state,  civil  mar- 
riage, a humane  criminal  code,  and  a reformed  judicial  system. 

The  Congress  consisted  of  two  hundred  and 
five  deputies  elected  by  the  states,  and  a 
Senate  composed  of  three  senators  from  each 
state.  This  constitution  went  nominally  into  effect  February 
24,  1891,  though  the  government  continued  a military  dic- 
tatorship for  four  years,  managed  by  military  adventurers  and 
unscrupulous  politicians.  Finally,  in  1893,  a revolt  was  begun 
against  the  military  dictatorship,  headed  by  the  Brazilian 
navy.  The  harbor  of  Rio  was  blockaded  while  the  president 
Floriano  controlled  the  army.  The  war  lasted  until  March, 
1894.  Floriano,  although  succeeding  in  overthrowing  the 
revolt,  refused  reelection  and  was  succeeded  by  Prudente. 
With  this  administration  the  real  republican  period  of  Brazil 
begins. 

As  a whole  the  history  of  Brazil  has  been  one  of  peace  as 
compared  to  that  of  the  other  republics  of  Latin  America. 


Establishment  of  the 
Republic 


200 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


This  has  been  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  she  delayed  the 
establishment  of  a republic  until  her  people  had  learned, 
through  experience,  something  of  self-government.  Since  1898 
Brazil  has  had  a succession  of  capable  presidents,  and  the 
country  has  made  both  political  and  material  progress. 

From  the  standpoint  of  economic  progress  Uruguay  belongs 
to  the  progressive  states,  though  politically  she  should  be 
classed  with  the  backward  states.  Uruguay  owes  her  inde- 
pendence to  the  fact  that  she  has  been  since  colonial  times  a 
disputed  territory.  In  a war  between  Argentina  and  Brazil, 
in  1816-17,  Uruguay  was  annexed  to  Brazil  and  remained  a 
province  of  that  country  until  another  war  broke  out  with 
Argentina  in  1825,  which  resulted  in  declaring  Uruguay  an 
independent  republic.  On  Argentina  declaring  war  against 
Brazil,  in  1825,  two  Uruguay  chiefs,  Lavalleja  and  Rivera, 
joined  forces  with  Argentina.  The  Brazilian 
uroguayePendenCe  °*  forces  were  soon  confined  to  Montevideo, 
but  the  war  dragged  on  until  1828,  when 
finally,  through  the  intervention  of  the  British  minister,  both 
Argentina  and  Brazil  gave  up  their  claims  to  the  territory 
and  the  region  was  erected  into  an  independent  republic. 
Meanwhile  the  Uruguayan  chiefs,  Rivera  and  Lavalleja,  con- 
tinued their  rivalry.  When  a constitution  was  adopted  by  the 
partisans  of  Lavalleja,  Rivera  prepared  to  make  war  upon 
him,  but  this  was  prevented  by  the  intervention  of  Brazil  and 
Argentina.  A compromise  was  finally  reached  by  which  Rivera 
became  the  first  president. 

No  sooner  was  constitutional  government  established  than 
civil  wars  broke  out  between  the  two  factions,  into  which  Ar- 
gentina soon  entered.  Rosas,  the  Argentine  dictator,  planned 
to  establish  the  anti-Rivera  chief  in  power  in  Uruguay  and  then 
to  get  his  aid  in  incorporating  the  country  with  Argentina. 
These  plans  were  well  on  the  way  to  accomplishment  when 
France  and  England  upset  the  plans,  French  and  British  ves- 
sels blockading  the  La  Plata.  At  this  juncture  Urquiza  broke 
with  Rosas  and,  joining  forces  with  the  Uruguayans,  de- 
feated the  Argentine  dictator  and  saved  Uruguay  independ- 


ence. 


STATUE  OF  EMPEROR  DOM  PEDRO  II 
JOSE  BALMACEDA  ROSAS 

PORFIRIO  DIAZ  BENITO  JUAREZ 


PROGRESSIVE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES  201 


Colorados  and 
Blancos 


The  history  of  Uruguay  from  the  overthrow  of  Rosas  to  the 
present  has  been  but  an  endless  series  of  civil  wars.  During 
the  period  from  1852  to  1860  the  leaders  of 
the  party  known  as  the  Colorado  occupied 
the  presidency,  while  Flores  became  the  chief 
figure.  In  1860  the  other  party,  known  as  the  Blancos,  came 
into  power,  and  since  that  time,  even  down  to  the  present, 
these  two  parties  have  carried  on  their  party  conflicts,  often 
bringing  the  country  into  civil  war. 


READING  REFERENCES 

Besides  the  general  works  already  cited,  the  following  books  on  special 
countries  may  be  added:  Argentina,  by  W.  H.  Hirst  (1910);  Uruguay,  by 
W.  A.  Koebel  (1915);  History  of  Chile,  by  H.  V.  Hancock  (1893);  Brazil, 
by  P.  Denis  (1911). 


CHAPTER  XVII 

MEXICO  AND  THE  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES 


Santa  Anna,  Juarez, 
and  Diaz 


The  history  of  Mexico  since  independence  may  be  con- 
veniently gathered  under  three  names,  Santa  Anna,  Juarez, 
and  Diaz.  For  thirty  years  after  independence  the  most  im- 
portant personage  in  Mexican  history  was  Santa  Anna;  follow- 
ing Santa  Anna  came  Juarez,  who  was  the  dominant  influence 
in  Mexico  to  his  death  in  1872;  and  he  in  turn  was  followed  by 
Diaz,  who  remained  at  the  head  of  the  Mexican  republic  until 
his  overthrow  in  1911.  From  independence 
in  1821  to  the  second  election  of  Diaz  to  the 
presidency  in  1884  Mexico  was  in  a state  of 
continuous  warfare.  At  first  glance  the  never-ending  conflicts 
seem  to  be  simply  the  struggle  of  rival  generals  for  control  of 
affairs,  but  on  a closer  examination  it  will  appear  that  the 
underlying  cause  was  a struggle  between  the  privileged  classes 
and  the  mass  of  the  population.  It  was  a struggle  also  between 
Centralists  and  Federalists,  the  former  identical  with  army, 
the  church,  and  the  supporters  of  despotism,  while  the  latter 
represented  the  desire  for  republican  and  local  self-government. 

On  the  deposition  of  Iturbide,  Mexico  was  proclaimed  a 
republic  with  a constitution  modeled  after  that  of  the  United 
States.  Santa  Anna,  who  had  led  the  revolution  against  the 
empire,  now  came  into  prominence  and  for  two  generations 
filled  Mexico  with  violence.  He  has  been  described  as  ignorant, 
crafty,  and  ambitious,  a democrat  by  instinct,  but  he  was 
neither  a general,  a statesman,  nor  even  an  honest  man.  Mex- 
Santa  Anna  and  the  ico  was  certainly  unfortunate  in  the  type  of 
Formation  of  the  leadership  which  he  imposed  upon  her.  From 
Republic  of  Mexico  igjQ  to  1821  Santa  Anna  had  been  a member 
of  the  army  of  Spain.  Later  he  was  made  governor  of  the 
province  of  Vera  Cruz,  his  native  province'  and  it  was  as 
governor  of  this  province  that  he  led  the  revolt  against  Itur- 
bide. Immediately  on  the  formation  of  the  republic  two  par- 

202 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES  203 


ties  arose,  one  the  Federalist  and  the  other  the  Centralist,  the 
latter  being  split  into  the  Free  Masons  and  the  monarchists. 
The  first  president  under  the  constitution  was  Guerrero,  the 
last  of  the  revolutionary  leaders.  His  administration  was 
filled  with  troubles  and  insurrections,  as  well  as  foreign  com- 
plications, and  in  1831  he  was  deposed  and  later  murdered. 
After  a period  of  turbulence  Santa  Anna  became  dictator.  As 
dictator  he  abolished  the  constitution,  suppressed  Congress 
and  the  state  Legislatures,  and  substituted  creatures  of  his 


Santa  Anna  and  the 
Revolt  of  Texas 


own. 

In  1836  a new  constitution  was  framed,  and  the  country  was 
divided  into  departments,  with  governors  appointed  by  the 
central  authority.  This  form  of  government  was  no  more 
successful  than  the  federal  form,  and  Santa  Anna  again  came 
forward  in  1841,  another  constitution  was  formed,  and  Nicholas 
Bravo  became  president.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  constitu- 
tion by  Santa  Anna,  in  1835,  Texas,  now  a part  of  the  state  of 
Coahuila,  revolted.  Texas  had  been  largely 
settled  by  people  from  the  United  States  in 
consequence  of  a land  grant  which  had  been 
made  to  Moses  Austin  in  1820  by  the  Spanish  authorities. 
The  people  of  Texas  had  come  largely  from  the  cotton-growing 
States  of  the  South  and  had  brought  their  slaves  with  them. 
When,  therefore,  President  Guerrero  had  abolished  slavery  they 
were  much  displeased,  and  when  finally  Santa  Anna  became 
dictator  the  Texans  revolted.  Fighting  continued  through 
the  fall  of  1835  and  the  winter  and  spring  of  1836.  Santa 
Anna  commanded  the  Mexican  forces,  and  was  guilty  of  the 
most  barbarous  cruelties,  slaughtering  prisoners  at  the  capture 
of  the  Alamo  in  March,  1836,  and  a few  weeks  later  at  Goliad. 
Sam  Houston  commanded  the  forces  of  Texas,  and  at  San 
Jacinto,  April  21,  1836,  completely  defeated  Santa  Anna,  where 
nearly  all  the  Mexican  army  was  killed,  wounded,  or  captured. 
Santa  Anna  was  himself  captured  the  next  day.  He  was  finally 
released  in  1837,  though  not  until  he  had  signed  a treaty  rec- 
ognizing the  independence  of  Texas,  which  on  his  return  to 
Mexico  he  promptly  repudiated. 

Soon  after  the  war  with  Texas  Mexico  became  involved  in  a 


204 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


dispute  with  France  over  unsettled  claims,  and  the  Mexican 
coast  was  blockaded  by  French  warships.  The  Mexican  gov- 
ernment was  forced  to  surrender,  which  resulted  in  a revolt, 
and  Santa  Anna  came  forward  once  more,  as  was  stated  above. 
Another  dispute  over  claims  with  the  United  States  was  settled 
in  1841  by  a commission,  and  when  in  1843  a forced  loan  was 
raised  to  pay  these  claims  Santa  Anna  was  again  overthrown, 
this  time  being  forced  to  go  into  exile,  going  to  Habana.  Gen- 
eral Herrera  now  became  president,  but  was  soon  overthrown 
by  General  Paredes  in  1846,  who  undertook  to  resist  the  claims 
of  the  United  States  to  disputed  territory. 

Meanwhile  Mexico  and  the  United  States  were  drifting  to- 
ward war.  Agitation  for  the  annexation  of  Texas  had  been 
carried  on  by  the  slaveholders  of  the  South  for  several  years, 
and  when  this  was  finally  accomplished  in  the  last  moment  of 
President  Tyler’s  administration,  the  Mexican  minister  at 
Washington  withdrew.  Mexican  affairs  were  in  confusion. 
The  president  was  suspected  of  intriguing  to  overthrow  the 
republic  and  was  compelled  to  give  way  to  the  vice-president, 
and  he  in  turn  was  forced  out  of  office  by  the  return  of  Santa 
Anna  from  exile,  who  assumed  the  presidency  and  the  conduct 
of  the  war,  in  August,  1846.  Santa  Anna  was  allowed  to  land 
at  Vera  Cruz  by  the  American  squadron,  probably  thinking 
The  war  Between  that  his  presence  in  Mexico  would  divide  the 
Mexico  and  the  Mexicans.  In  the  meantime  President  Polk 

united  states  had  ordered  General  Taylor  down  to  the  Rio 

Grande,  where  open  hostilities  soon  resulted.  After  a series  of 
battles  in  the  northern  part  of  Mexico  in  the  autumn  of  1848, 
in  which  the  Americans  were  always  victorious,  the  Washing- 
ton government  decided  to  send  an  expedition  from  Vera  Cruz 
for  the  capture  of  the  Mexican  capital.  General  Winfield 
Scott,  the  commander  of  the  expedition,  captured  Vera  Cruz 
on  March  29,  1847,  and  proceeding  toward  Mexico  City, 
fought  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo  on  April  17  and  18.  Two 
more  battles  were  fought  in  September  near  the  capital,  and 
the  Americans  occupied  the  city  on  September  14,  1847.  This 
virtually  ended  the  war. 

One  of  the  results  of  the  defeat  of  the  Mexican  forces  was  the 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES  205 


Mexico  from  1848  to 

1854 


overthrow  of  Santa  Anna,  and  the  new  government  now  formed 
The  Treaty  of  appointed  commissioners  to  treat  for  peace. 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Negotiations  continued  until  February,  1848, 

February  2, 1848  when  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  was 
signed.  It  provided  for  the  ceding  to  the  United  States  of  New 
Mexico,  Texas,  and  Upper  California  in  return  for  a payment 
of  $15,000,000  by  the  United  States  to  Mexico.  The  United 
States  had  begun  the  war  for  the  purpose  of  adding  addi- 
tional territory  which  might  be  available  for  the  extension  of 
slavery. 

General  Herrera  once  more  became  president  in  1848  and 
remained  in  office  until  1851.  The  financial  situation  was  des- 
perate and  attempts  were  made  to  restore  public  credit.  Some 
progress  was  made  through  an  arrangement  with  British  hold- 
ers of  Mexican  stock,  but  the  federal  revenue  was  not  large 
enough  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  things  went  from  bad  to  worse. 
Smuggling  was  commonly  carried  on,  and  to 
add  to  the  confusion,  Indian  revolts  broke  out  in  Yucatan  and 
Sierra  Gorda.  Herrera  was  succeeded  by  Arista  as  president 
in  1851,  who  resigned  office  in  1853.  After  a short  period  Santa 
Anna  was  once  more  recalled  to  power  and  was  made  dictator, 
and  in  December  assumed  the  title  of  “Serene  Highness.” 
This  action  on  the  part  of  Santa  Anna  aroused  revolt,  demand- 
ing the  deposition  of  the  dictator  and  the  formation  of  a new 
government.  Among  the  leaders  in  this  movement  were  Gen- 
erals Alvarez  and  Comonfort,  and  working  with  them  were 
two  other  men,  destined  to  play  a large  part  in  the  future 
history  of  Mexico,  Benito  Juarez  and  Porfirio  Diaz.  The 
revolt  soon  spread  throughout  the  country  and  Santa  Anna 
was  forced  to  flee  in  August,  1854. 

Alvarez  became  president  in  1855,  and  General  Comonfort 
became  minister  of  war,  while  Juarez  became  minister  of 
finance.  Juarez  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  Mexico  has 
produced.  Bom  in  a village  of  Oaxaca  in  1806,  of  unmixed 
Indian  parentage,  he  studied  for  the  priesthood,  later  studied 
law,  taught  physics  in  a local  college,  and  finally,  going  into 
politics,  became  governor  of  his  native  state  in  1847.  Juarez 


206 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Mexico  from  1854  to 
1861 


stood  for  liberal  government,  and  among  the  things  accom- 
plished in  the  beginning  of  his  administration  as  minister  of 
finance  was  the  enactment  of  a law  subjecting  the  clergy  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary  courts.  One  of 
the  curses  of  Mexico  has  always  been  “benefit 
of  clergy.”  Alvarez  soon  gave  way  to  Com- 
onfort, while  Comonfort  was  overthrown  by  a reactionary 
party  under  the  leadership  of  Zuloaga,  and  he  in  turn  was  soon 
followed  by  Pezuela,  and  Pezuela  by  a young  and  unscrupulous 
soldier,  Miguel  Miramon.  Juarez  became  the  leader  of  the 
Federalist  party,  but  was  unable  to  get  possession  of  the  cap- 
ital, being  twice  defeated  outside  the  city.  Two  rival  govern- 
ments were  now  set  up,  one  at  Vera  Cruz  under  Juarez,  who 
was  recognized  by  the  United  States  and  permitted  to  draw 
supplies,  while  the  reactionary  government  was  established  at 
the  capital.  A situation  now  prevailed  in  Mexico  similar  to 
that  of  1913.  Outrages  were  continually  committed  by  both 
parties  against  foreigners  and  there  were  strong  reasons  for 
foreign  intervention.  Early  in  1859  President  Buchanan  rec- 
ommended to  Congress  that  the  United  States  intervene,  but 
Congress  failed  to  respond.  In  December  of  1859  the  M’CIean- 
Juarez  treaty  was  signed  giving  the  United  States  a sort  of 
disguised  protectorate  over  Mexico,  but  it  failed  of  ratification 
by  the  United  States  Senate. 

The  crisis  in  Mexican  affairs  came  in  1860,  when  Miramon, 
under  the  plea  of  necessity,  seized  $630,000  which  had  been 
left  under  seal  at  the  British  legation  for  English  bondholders. 
The  following  month  Miramon’s  government  was  overthrown 
by  the  forces  of  Juarez,  and  Juarez  entered  the  capital  in 
January,  1861.  Juarez,  however,  did  nothing  to  satisfy  the 
claims  of  the  European  states,  and  outrages  on  the  persons 
and  property  of  foreigners  continued.  Finally,  in  October, 
1861,  an  agreement  was  reached  between  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Spain  to  take  steps  to  intervene  in  Mex- 
'co-  Both  England  and  Spain  had  legitimate 
claims,  but  the  French  claims  were  based 
upon  the  claims  of  Jecker,  a Swiss  banker  who  had  loaned 
Miramon  $750,000,  which  Miramon  secured  by  handing  over 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES  207 


$15,000,000  worth  of  bonds.  Jecker  failed  and  soon  afterward 
Miramon  was  overthrown.  Most  of  Jecker’s  creditors  were 
French,  and  Napoleon  III  naturalized  Jecker  by  imperial 
decree,  while  Jecker  had  won  over  certain  influential  French- 
men, by  corrupt  means,  to  support  his  claims.  Vera  Cruz  was 
occupied  by  Spanish  troops  in  December,  1861,  while  Great 
Britain  landed  seven  hundred  marines.  France,  however,  sent 
over  a large  fleet,  and  proceeded  to  seize  the  Gulf  ports.  It 
soon  became  evident  to  both  Spain  and  England  that  France 
was  prepared  to  go  beyond  the  agreement,  and  they  accord- 
ingly withdrew  their  forces  in  March,  1862. 

France  now  sent  thirty  thousand  troops  and  proceeded  to 
conquer  the  country.  Puebla  was  captured  after  a siege,  on 
February  17,  1863,  and  Mexico  City  fell  on  June  7.  At  this 
juncture  a provisional  government,  nominated  by  the  French 
minister,  was  formed,  which  proceeded  to  declare  for  monarchy, 
and  offered  the  crown  to  Maximilian,  the 
Maximilian’s  Empire  brother  of  the  emperor  of  Austria.  A year 
later  Maximilian  arrived,  bringing  with  him 
all  the  etiquette  belonging  to  European  courts.  More  un- 
popular even  than  Maximilian  with  the  Mexican  people  were 
the  troops  which  were  brought  from  Europe  to  form  the  nu- 
cleus of  his  army.  Juarez  continued  his  government  in  the 
north,  while  Diaz  led  a revolt  in  the  southwest.  The  country 
was  tom  by  guerilla  warfare.  Republican  bands  sprang  up  all 
over  the  country.  Maximilian  issued  a decree  in  October,  1865, 
stating  that  Mexican  guerillas  when  captured  would  be  tried 
by  court  martial  and  shot. 

With  the  end  of  the  American  Civil  War  the  United  States 
took  action  at  once  on  the  Mexican  situation.  Secretary 
Seward  had  continued  to  protest  against  the  aggressions  of 
the  French  from  the  first,  but  as  the  Washington  government 
was  fully  occupied  with  its  own  Civil  War  it  was  impossible  to 
follow  up  the  protests.  United  States  troops  were  now  sent 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  Napoleon  III  at  once 
promised  the  withdrawal  of  his  forces.  Maxi- 
milian was  now  deserted  by  the  power  which 
had  placed  him  upon  his  throne,  and  he  contemplated  abdica- 


The  Overthrow  of  the 
Empire 


208 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


tion.  The  power  of  Juarez  and  his  government  spread  rapidly, 
and  in  May,  1867,  Maximilian,  with  a small  force,  was  captured 
at  Queretaro,  together  with  Miramon  and  Mehia,  two  Mexican 
generals.  They  were  tried  by  court  martial  on  June  14,  and 
shot  June  19,  despite  the  protests  of  European  governments 
and  prominent  individuals,  including  Garibaldi  and  Victor 
Hugo. 

Juarez  now  became  president  and  continued  in  office  until 
his  death  in  1872.  These  were  years  of  continued  revolution, 
a clerical  insurrection  breaking  out  in  1869  and  a republican  in 
1870.  At  the  second  election  of  Juarez,  in  1871,  there  were 
three  candidates,  Diaz  and  Lerdo,  besides  Juarez,  and  no 
candidate  receiving  a majority,  the  election  was  thrown  to 
Congress  and  Juarez  was  elected.  The  followers  of  Diaz  re- 
juarez  President,  fused  to  recognize  Juarez  and  raised  a revolt, 
1867-1872.  which  continued  until  the  death  of  Juarez  in 

Tejada,  1872-1876  1872.  On  the  death  of  Juarez  he  was  suc- 

ceeded by  the  president  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Lerdo  de  Tejada. 
Under  his  administration  laws  were  passed  attacking  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  Protestant  missions  were 
established.  In  1873  the  Vera  Cruz  and  Mexico  Railroad  was 
opened,  and  as  a whole  these  were  years  of  economic  advance. 
Toward  the  close  of  his  administration  Lerdo  was  suspected 
of  aiming  at  a dictatorship  and  Diaz  attempted  to  raise  a 
rebellion  in  the  north  against  him.  This  was,  however,  a failure, 
but  after  the  reelection  of  Lerdo,  Diaz  was  successful  in 
starting  a revolt  in  Oaxaca,  which  succeeded  in  overthrowing 
the  government,  and  Diaz  was  declared  president  on  May  2, 
1877. 

The  first  term  of  President  Diaz  was  from  1877  to  1880, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  President  Gonzales  (1880-1884).  In 
1884  Diaz  was  again  elected  president,  and  from  that  date  to 
1910  he  continued  in  office.  Under  the  first  administration  of 
Diaz,  and  under  President  Gonzales,  diplomatic  relations  were 
restored  with  both  European  and  South  American  States,  and  a 
beginning  was  made  in  financial  and  economic  retrenchment. 
After  1884  the  constitution  was  so  amended  as  to  allow  the 
continued  reelection  of  Diaz,  and  down  to  1910  Mexico  was 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES  209 


without  political  strife.  Diaz’s  policy  may  be  summed  up  in 
The  Administrations  these  words:  he  put  down  disorder  with  a 
of  Porfino  Diaz,  strong  hand;  enforced  the  law;  fostered  rail- 
road building  and  native  manufactures; 
started  new  industries  and  gave  them  tariff  protection;  pro- 
moted education;  protected  the  forests;  encouraged  coloniza- 
tion; and  placed  the  national  credit  on  a sound  basis.  The 
first  task  of  Diaz  was  the  pacification  of  the  country.  This  was 
accomplished  by  means  of  the  guardias  rurales,  or  mounted 
police,  which  was  composed  of  the  class  who  in  former  days 
drifted  into  brigandage.  Maintaining  internal  order  was  also 
greatly  aided  by  the  extension  of  railroads  and  telegraphs. 
The  foreign  policy  of  President  Diaz  was  as  successful  as  the 
home  policy.  Active  measures  were  taken  to  establish  arbi- 
tration for  the  Central  American  States;  he  accepted  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine  in  the  Venezuelan  dispute,  though  suggesting  that 
its  maintenance  should  be  undertaken  by  all  the  American 
powers  rather  than  be  left  to  the  United  States  alone.  Friendly 
relations  were  maintained  with  the  United  States  to  the  end 
of  his  long  term  of  office. 

Under  federal  and  democratic  forms  President  Diaz  exer- 
cised a strictly  centralized  and  personal  rule.  In  1904  the  vice- 
presidency, which  had  been  previously  abolished,  was  revived 
owing  to  the  advancing  age  of  Diaz.  Don  Ramon  Corral  was 
elected  to  that  office  and  it  became  practically  certain  that  if 
Diaz  died  in  office  he  would  be  succeeded  by  Corral  without 
difficulty.  The  dictatorship  of  Diaz  had  been  carried  on 
largely  in  the  interest  of  the  large  landholders.  In  1896  a 
causes  of  the  Land  Law  was  passed  which  permitted  the 

Revolution  in  Mexico  denunciation  of  all  land  not  held  by  a legal 
of  1910  title.  Most  of  the  small  holdings  were  held 

by  peons,  who  knew  nothing  of  titles,  and  in  most  cases  had 
occupied  the  land  for  generations,  undisturbed.  As  a result  of 
this  law,  great  tracts  of  land  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
great  landholders  while  the  peons  were  evicted  by  federal 
soldiers.  The  revolution  which  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of 
Diaz  and  his  system  was  largely  a peon  revolution  and  the 
struggle  has  been  in  a sense  a “war  for  the  land.”  There  was 


210 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


also  a large  and  growing  discontent  over  the  dictatorial  power 
exercised  by  Diaz  and  a desire  to  restore  real  republican  gov- 
ernment. 

The  leader  in  the  revolution  which  overthrew  Diaz  was 
General  Madero,  and  he  was  finally  able  to  force  President 
Diaz  to  resign  on  May  25,  1911,  and  later  was  elected  consti- 
tutional president.  No  sooner  was  he  established  in  office 
than  he  was  murdered  by  the  tools  of  General  Huerta,  one  of 
the  generals  in  the  federal  army.  This 
i9i6Ji9iiIUti0n  °f  method  of  gaining  office  naturally  shocked 
the  American  people  and  President  Wilson 
refused  to  recognize  Huerta’s  government.  General  Carranza 
now  came  forward  as  an  advocate  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment, avoiding  the  important  question  of  the  distribution  of 
land,  which  had  been  one  of  the  promises  made  by  Madero. 
Carranza  finally  succeeded  in  overthrowing  Huerta  and  was 
elected  president.  In  February,  1917,  a new  constitution  was 
adopted,  following  in  general  the  constitution  of  Juarez  of 
1857,  and  since  that  time  Mexico  has  become  largely  pacified, 
though  Pancho  Villa  and  his  band  of  bandits  are  still  at  large, 
operating  in  the  northern  part  of  Mexico. 

Central  American  States 

On  the  formation  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1824  the 
Central  American  states  resolved  to  set  up  an  independent 
government,  and  a federation  modeled  after  the  United  States 
was  the  result.  On  the  10th  of  April,  1825,  a constitution  was 
adopted,  and  General  Manuel  Joseph  became  the  first  pres- 
ident. In  the  confederation  Guatemala  had  the  chief  influence, 
and  the  majority  of  members  in  the  lower  house.  Salvador 
objected  to  the  control  of  Guatemala,  and  an  endless  series  of 
petty  conflicts  thus  began.  The  constitution 
was  a most  liberal  document,  and  is  remark- 
able for  the  fact  that  it  was  the  first  one 
adopted  by  the  Latin  republics  which  abol- 
ished slavery.  The  government  proceeded  to  pass  a number 
of  liberal  laws.  Convents  were  suppressed,  secular  priests  were 
allowed  to  marry  in  Honduras,  and  in  1832  religious  toleration 


Central  America 
Under  the 
Confederation, 
1824-1838 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES  211 


was  declared.  The  clerical  party,  however,  fought  against  the 
constitution  and  the  reforms  instituted.  The  next  year  after 
the  formation  of  the  union  rebellions  broke  out  in  Nicaragua, 
and  later  in  Guatemala.  The  man  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
maintaining  of  the  union  was  Morazan,  who  in  1834  defeated 
the  Guatamaltecs  and  transferred  the  seat  of  government  to 
San  Salvador.  The  Oligarchic  party  of  Guatemala  continued 
to  make  war  upon  the  federation,  and  finally  in  1838  it  had 
been  practically  destroyed. 

In  1842  a second  federation  was  formed,  but  this  was  no 
more  successful  than  the  first  had  been  and  was  soon  dissolved. 
Morizan,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  first  confederation,  had 
fled  from  the  country,  and  on  his  return  had  been  arrested  and 
shot  by  his  enemies.  This  was  a great  blow  to  the  Liberal 
„ party  in  Central  America.  A third  attempt 

The  Second  and  . . ^ 

Third  Attempts  at  at  a confederation  was  made  m 1847,  Hon- 
contederation,  1842,  duras,  San  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua  uniting. 

Costa  Rica,  separated  by  high  mountains 
from  the  other  states,  had  taken  no  part  in  the  second  confed- 
eration, and  was  not  a member  of  the  third.  The  three  states 
in  the  confederation  desired  Guatemala  to  join  them,  and  a 
war  begun  to  compel  her  to  do  so.  General  Carrera,  of  Guate- 
mala, however,  defeated  the  federalists,  and  gradually  the 
third  confederation  came  to  an  end  as  a result  of  continuous 
civil  strife. 

In  1846  the  United  States  entered  into  a treaty  with  Co- 
lombia (then  New  Granada)  by  which  the  right  of  transit  was 
given  to  the  United  States  over  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Under 
this  treaty  there  was  organized  in  1850  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company,  made  up  of  United  States  citizens,  and  by  1855  the 
railroad  was  in  operation.  Previous  to  this  treaty  with  Co- 
lombia the  United  States  had  made  an  agree- 
ment with  Nicaragua  looking  toward  the 
building  of  a canal  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 
This  led  to  some  complications  with  Great 
Britain,  because  of  her  claims  to  territory  occupied  by  the 
Mosquito  Indians,  through  which  the  canal  was  to  pass.  This 
was  finally  settled  by  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  between  the 


The  Panama  Railroad 
and  the  First  Steps 
Toward  a Canal 
Across  the  Isthmus 


212 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


United  States  and  Great  Britain,  which  was  signed  in  1850. 
The  treaty  provided  for  the  provisional  joint  control  of  the 
canal  by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

About  this  time  an  American  adventurer  by  the  name  of 
William  Walker  got  control  of  Nicaragua.  He  had  gone  to 
California  in  1850  in  the  gold  rush,  and  in  1853  had  attempted 
a filibustering  expedition  into  Mexico,  which,  however,  was  a 
failure.  On  his  return  to  the  East  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
conducting  a similar  expedition  into  Nicaragua.  He  landed  in 
the  country  in  1855  with  seventy  men,  and  soon  succeeded, 
through  the  aid  of  the  American  consul,  in  securing  for  himself 
the  appointment  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  From 
this  post  he  soon  advanced  to  the  presidency,  and  for  two 
years  maintained  himself  in  Nicaragua  as  president.  His  orig- 
The  invasion  of  ina-l  plans  had  been  to  form  a military  gov- 

wiiiiam  walker  and  emment  and  proceed  to  the  conquest  of  all 

His  Filibusters  Spanish  America.  At  this  time  the  slave- 
holders in  the  South  were  planning  the  extension  of  slavery 
and  the  adding  of  slave  states  to  the  Union  by  seizing  Cuba 
and  other  states  to  the  south.  Walker,  however,  on  having 
secured  power,  attempted  to  keep  it  for  himself,  and  this 
proved  his  undoing.  He  was  deserted  by  his  friends  in  the 
United  States  when  they  learned  of  his  purpose,  and  he  was 
driven  out  by  an  insurrection  in  Nicaragua  in  1857.  He  made 
two  other  attempts  to  regain  his  power  in  the  country,  but 
was  captured  in  1860  and  put  to  death  as  a pirate. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  confederation  the  Clerical  party 
controlled  affairs  in  Central  America  for  a number  of  years, 
under  the  leadership  of  Carrera,  of  Guatemala.  After  his  death 
in  1865,  the  Liberal  party  came  back  to  power,  and  even  in 
Guatemala,  the  most  conservative  of  all  the  Central  American 
States,  the  Liberal  party  ruled.  The  period  since  the  federation 
has  been  one  of  anarchy  and  confusion  in  all  of  the  states 
except  Costa  Rica  and  Salvador,  both  of  which  have  had,  as 
a whole,  a peaceful  government.  In  Honduras,  Guatemala, 
and  Nicaragua  conflict  and  revolution  have  been  the  rule  rather 
than  the  exception. 

There  have  been  at  least  two  attempts  in  recent  years  to 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES  213 


revive  the  confederation.  In  1885  the  president  of  Guatemala 
led  a movement  to  restore  federal  unity,  but  the  attempt 
uter  Attempts  at  failed,  and  the  promoter,  President  Barrios, 


Confederation,  1885 
and  1895 


lost  his  life.  Again  in  1895  there  was  formed 
The  Greater  Republic  of  Central  America,  in 
which  Nicaragua,  Salvador,  and  Honduras  actually  united  and 
maintained  the  union  until  1898.  It  was  hoped  that  Guate- 
mala and  Costa  Rica  would  also  unite,  and  provision  was  made 
in  the  constitution  for  their  admission,  but  before  that  was 
accomplished  Salvador  dissolved  the  union  by  her  withdrawal. 


READING  REFERENCES 

The  fullest  account  of  the  political  history  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America  will  be  found  in  History  of  Central  America,  3 vols.  (1886-1887), 
and  History  of  Mexico,  by  H.  H.  Bancroft;  6 vols.  (1883). 

The  articles  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  Mexico  and  Central 
America  are  excellent  brief  accounts  of  the  political  history. 

In  The  Cambridge  Modem  History,  Vol.  XII,  Chapter  XXI,  is  a brief 
historical  sketch  of  the  Republics  of  Latin  America. 

For  the  Mexican  War,  History  of  the  War  with  Mexico,  by  E.  D.  Mans- 
field (New  York,  1849). 

For  the  history  of  Mexico  since  1884  a number  of  magazine  articles  will 
be  found  of  value:  “Mexico  under  Diaz,”  by  Iturbide,  North  American 
Review,  June,  1894;  “Politics  in  Mexico,”  by  Van  Dyke,  Harper’s  Maga- 
zine (1885),  Vol.  LXXI;  “A  Study  of  the  Constitution  of  1857,”  in  Annals 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  Science,  1891 . 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


THE  GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE  LATIN  AMERICAN 

STATES 

The  form  of  government  which  has  been  adopted  through- 
out Latin  America  is  republican,  and  however  unsuccessful  it 
may  have  been  in  practice,  yet  the  people  are  thoroughly 
wedded  to  it  in  theory  and  will  tolerate  no  other.  Three  times 
have  monarchies  been  established  in  Latin  America,  twice  in 
Mexico  and  in  Brazil  once,  but  all  were  failures.  The  chief 
reason  for  the  lack  of  stability  in  Latin-American  government 
seems  to  be  lack  of  experience  in  self-government,  as  well  as  a 
lack  of  certain  characteristics  which  self- 

Govemmental  Char-  ........ 

acteristics  and  government  tends  to  create  in  the  individual. 

Conceptions  of  the  jn  tfie  first  place,  the  Latin  Americans  have 

Latin  American 

little  conception  of  toleration  in  politics. 
They  have  all  been  educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
and  have  brought  “into  politics  the  absolutism  of  religious 
dogmas.”  One  party  thinks  of  the  other  as  completely  wrong, 
while  they  have  the  absolute  right  on  their  side,  hence  their 
adversaries  must  be  annihilated.  “The  hatred  of  one’s  op- 
ponents is  the  first  duty  of  the  politician,”  and  so  it  is  only  by 
force  and  violence  that  a party  can  come  into  power.  It  may 
be  said  with  truth  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  public  opinion 
in  Latin  America.  Elections  give  no  opportunity  for  the  free 
expression  of  the  desires  of  the  people,  because  they  are  con- 
ducted under  the  control  of  the  government  and  the  party  in 
power;  hence  the  only  way  for  one  party  to  replace  another  is 
by  revolution.  Revolution  under  such  conditions  seems  to  be 
a necessary  form  of  political  activity. 

Latin  Americans  are  excellent  theorists  and  constitution 
makers.  On  paper  their  instruments  of  government  are  almost 
perfect.  Their  ideas  of  justice  and  liberty 
are  high,  as  high  indeed  as  those  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  republics  of  the  north.  Their 
constitutions  are  written  in  solemn  and  impressive  language 

214 


Latin  American 
Constitutions 


THE  GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE  STATES  215 


in  which  Divine  approval  is  invoked,  but  a student  of  Latin- 
American  politics  will  soon  learn  that  it  is  one  thing  to  make  a 
constitution  and  quite  another  to  carry  it  out  and  to  abide 
by  it. 

There  are  two  types  of  republics  prevailing  in  Latin  America: 
centralized  and  federal.  Under  the  first  come  Peru,  Chile, 
Bolivia,  Ecuador,  Colombia,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay,  the  repub- 
lics of  Central  America  as  well  as  the  three  island  republics.  Un- 
der the  federal  form  come  the  larger  states  of  Argentina,  Brazil, 
General  character  of  Venezuela,  and  Mexico.  All  of  the  constitu- 
Latin  American  tions  separate  the  departments  of  govern- 
ment more  or  less  distinctly  into  executive, 
legislative,  and  judicial.  They  all  have  elective  presidencies, 
the  president  generally  holding  office  for  a period  of  four  to  six 
years.  The  legislative  branch  of  the  governments  consists 
generally  of  a Congress  of  two  chambers,  a Senate  and  a Cham- 
ber of  Deputies.  The  judicial  department  is  provided  with  a 
Supreme  Court,  with  appointive  judges,  while  the  provinces  or 
states  have  special  courts  of  their  own.  The  constitutions 
generally  recognize  the  Catholic  religion  as  the  religion  of  the 
state,  though  in  some  the  establishment  or  prohibition  of  any 
form  of  religion  is  prohibited.  In  all  the  states  education  is 
free  and  compulsory. 


The  Federal  Republics 

The  Mexican  government  was  carried  on  under  the  constitu- 
tion of  1857  until  the  overthrow  of  President  Diaz  in  1911. 
Under  this  constitution  the  president  held  office  six  years,  and 
was  assisted  by  a Cabinet  of  eight  secretaries,  who  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  president  and  were  directly  responsible  to  him. 
Congress  was  made  up  of  two  houses,  the  Senate  and  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  former  consisting  of  fifty-six  mem- 
bers, two  from  each  state  and  the  federal  district,  and  were 
elected  indirectly  for  a term  of  four  years.  There  were  two 
hundred  and  thirty-three  members  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
also  elected  indirectly  for  a term  of  two  years,  one  for  every 
forty  thousand  inhabitants  or  fraction  exceeding  twenty  thou- 
sand. Suffrage  was  possessed  by  all  citizens  of  eighteen  years 


216 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Mexican  Local 
Government 


of  age  if  married  and  twenty-one  years  if  not  married.  The 
executive  departments  were  Foreign  Affairs,  Interior,  Justice, 
Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts,  Promotion,  Communications 
and  Public  Works,  Finance,  War  and  Marine.  The  judicial 
organization  consisted  of  a supreme  court,  three  circuit  courts, 
thirty-two  district  courts,  and  various  other  state,  territorial, 
and  federal  district  courts. 

Mexico  is  divided  into  twenty-seven  states  and  three  terri- 
tories and  a federal  district.  Each  state  has  a governor  elected 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  president.  There 
are  also  state  Legislatures  and  courts.  The 
governors  of  territories  are  appointed  by  the 
president,  while  the  federal  district  is  governed  by  three  offi- 
cials, also  appointed  by  the  president.  The  states  and  terri- 
tories are  divided  into  municipalities,  each  of  which  elects  its 
own  officials. 

The  recent  constitution  of  Mexico  adopted  in  February, 
1917,  follows  the  broad  lines  of  the  constitution  of  1857.  The 
only  changes  are  made  with  the  object  of  making  it  applicable 
to  modem  conditions.  Among  the  restrictions  placed  in  the 
constitution  are  those  relating  to  the  owner- 
ship of  land.  Foreigners  are  not  to  be  allowed 
to  mix  in  any  manner  in  the  political  affairs 
of  the  country,  while  only  Mexicans  by  birth  or  naturalization 
and  Mexican  companies  are  to  have  the  right  to  acquire  posses- 
sion of  lands  or  waters,  or  to  exploit  mines  or  water  rights. 
Foreigners  may  obtain  such  rights  by  appearing  before  the 
Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  agreeing  to  be  considered  as 
Mexicans  in  respect  to  the  titles  involved,  and  they  shall  also 
agree  not  to  invoke  the  protection  of  their  governments.  The 
new  constitution  also  provides  for  the  strict  government  regu- 
lation of  the  church  and  all  ministers  of  whatever  cult  must  be 
Mexicans  by  birth.  Marriage  is  to  be  considered  as  a civil 
contract  and  education  is  to  be  conducted  by  lay  teachers. 


The  Constitution  of 
1917 


Argentina 

The  present  constitution  of  the  Argentine  Republic  was 
adopted  in  1853  and  was  closely  modeled  after  that  of  the 


THE  GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE  STATES  217 


United  States.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a national 
Congress  of  two  houses,  a Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
the  former  with  thirty  members,  the  latter  with  one  hundred 
and  twenty.  Senators  are  elected  for  a term  of  nine  years  by 
the  Legislatures  of  the  several  provinces, 
ment^ of*  Argentina™"  Deputies  are  elected  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people,  one  for  every  thirty  thousand  peo- 
ple. The  president  and  vice-president  are  elected  as  in  the 
United  States,  and  serve  for  a term  of  six  years.  The  vice- 
president  is  also  the  president  of  the  Senate.  The  president 
must  be  a Roman  Catholic  and  possess  an  income  of  $2,000  a 
year.  The  salary  received  by  the  president  is  $31,680  (72,000 
pesos),  while  members  of  Congress  receive  $5,000  a year.  The 
president  is  assisted  by  eight  ministers,  who  form  his  Cabinet. 
The  departments  are  Interior,  Foreign  Affairs  and  Worship, 
Treasury,  Justice  and  Public  Instruction,  War,  Navy,  Agricul- 
ture, and  Public  Works.  The  judiciary  is  composed  of  a su- 
preme court,  four  courts  of  appeal,  and  courts  of  first  instance. 
Each  province  has  its  own  judiciary  machinery. 

Argentina  has  fourteen  provinces,  ten  territories,  and  a fed- 
eral district.  The  governors  of  the  provinces  are  elected  by 
the  people,  while  the  governors  of  the  terri- 
tories are  appointed  by  the  president,  as  is 
also  the  mayor  of  the  Federal  district.  Mili- 
tary service  is  compulsory  and  an  army  of  20,000  is  maintained, 
while  in  case  of  mobilization  an  army  of  120,000  is  available. 
Argentina  has  a navy  of  forty  vessels  and  a naval  reserve  of 
25,000  men. 

Brazil 


State  and  Local 
Government 


The  constitution  adopted  on  the  overthrow  of  the  empire  is 
still  in  force  in  Brazil.  Like  the  Mexican  and  Argentine  con- 
stitutions, the  government  is  divided  into  three  distinct  de- 
partments. The  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  make  up 
the  legislative  branch.  The  Senate  is  composed  of  three  sena- 
tors from  each  state  and  three  from  the  federal  district,  elected 
by  direct  vote  for  a term  of  nine  years.  The  Chamber  of 
Deputies  is  made  up  of  members  elected  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  senators,  one  for  every  seventy  thousand  people,  and 


218 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Federal  Government 
in  Brazil 


serve  three  years.  All  male  citizens  over  twenty-one  are  en- 
titled to  vote.  Congress  meets  once  a year, 
on  May  3,  and  remains  in  session  four 
months,  but  it  may  be  called  in  extra  session 
by  the  president.  The  executive  government  consists  of  the 
president,  assisted  by  a Cabinet  of  seven  members  appointed  by 
the  president  and  responsible  to  him.  Both  president  and  vice- 
president  are  elected  for  a period  of  four  years,  by  direct  vote, 
and  may  not  be  immediately  reelected.  The  judicial  part  of 
the  government  consists  of  a supreme  court  and  a federal  court 
for  each  state.  The  supreme  court  judges  are  appointed  as  in 
the  United  States  and  hold  office  for  life. 

Brazil  has  twenty  states,  one  territory,  and  a federal  district. 
Like  the  other  federal  republics,  a large  degree  of  self-govem- 
Locai  Government  ment  is  ^ to  the  states.  Military  service  is 

and  Military  compulsory  for  all  ablebodied  men  between 

Organization  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  forty-five.  The 

war  strength  of  the  army  is  300,000  men,  and  Brazil  has  one  of 
the  strongest  navies  among  Latin-American  states,  with  fifty- 
five  vessels  and  nearly  10,000  men.  The  post  office  is  well  estab- 
lished with  nearly  4,000  offices  and  a federal  telegraph  with  over 
20,000  miles  of  line. 

V ENEZUELA 


The  constitution  of  Venezuela  is  the  latest  of  the  federal 
instruments  of  government,  having  been  adopted  on  the  over- 
throw of  Castro  in  1909.  It  is  also  the  most  conservative  of 
the  federal  constitutions,  in  that  the  president  is  elected  by  the 
national  Congress  and  not  by  a direct  vote  of  the  people. 
Senators  are  also  elected  by  the  state  Legislatures.  Senators 
must  be  thirty  years  old  and  native  Venezuelans,  while  Depu- 
ties must  be  twenty  or  more  years  of  age 
^evenaezue°ilerilment  and  natives  of  Venezuela.  Congress  meets 
every  year  for  a session  of  seventy  days  only, 
and  this  time  may  not  be  extended.  The  president  holds  office 
for  four  years,  and  is  not  eligible  for  immediate  reelection. 
Another  feature  of  the  Venezuelan  constitution  is  the  Council 
of  Government,  composed  of  one  member  from  each  district,  a 
district  being  composed  of  two  states.  These  officials  are 


THE  GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE  STATES  219 


elected  by  Congress  and  serve  for  one  year  only.  The  pres- 
ident’s cabinet  is  composed  of  seven  members  appointed  in  the 
usual  way.  The  departments  are  Interior,  Foreign,  Finance 
and  Public  Credit,  War  and  Marine,  Promotion,  Public  Works, 
and  Public  Instruction.  There  are  a supreme  court  and  a cassa- 
tion court,  as  well  as  courts  of  appeal  and  minor  courts. 

Venezuela  is  divided  into  twenty  states,  two  territories,  and 
a federal  district.  Each  state  has  its  own  governor  and  legisla- 
, , „ tive  assemblies,  as  well  as  local  courts.  The 

states  are  divided  into  districts  and  the  latter 
into  municipalities.  Venezuela  maintains  a small  standing 
army  and  a small  navy,  while  compulsory  military  service  is 
demanded  of  ablebodied  males. 


General  Characteris- 
tics of  the 
Governments  of  the 
Centralized  Republics 


The  Centralized  Republics 
The  centralized  republics  of  South  America  are  Chile, 
Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay.  As  far  as 
their  national  governments  are  concerned 
they  are  similar  to  the  federal  republics.  The 
difference  comes  in  the  state  governments. 
All  have  national  legislative  bodies  composed 
of  two  houses,  elective  presidents,  and  national  supreme  courts. 
Bolivia  and  Peru  have  provisions  for  two  vice-presidents.  Uru- 
guay elects  her  president  by  the  general  Assembly,  while  Chile 
elects  by  electors,  and  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Colombia  by  direct 
vote. 

Chile  is  divided  into  twenty-three  provinces  and  a national 
territory.  These  in  turn  are  divided  into  departments,  dis- 
Locai  Governments  tricts,  and  municipalities.  The  provinces  are 
in  the  Centralized  governed  by  intendents,  who  are  appointed 
Republics  by  the  president,  while  the  departments  are 

governed  by  governors,  and  the  districts  by  inspectors.  Bo- 
livia is  likewise  divided  into  departments  and  they  into  prov- 
inces, provinces  into  cantons,  and  the  cantons  into  municipali- 
ties. The  departments  are  governed  by  prefects,  who  receive 
their  appointment  from  the  president;  Uruguay  is  also  divided 
into  departments  which  are  subdivided  into  sections  and 
districts. 


220 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  governments  of  the  Central  American  states  follow  the 
centralized  system.  The  various  republics  are  divided  into 
departments,  at  the  head  of  which  are  governors,  appointed 
Governments  of  the  b7  the  central  government.  With  the  excep- 
Centrai  American  tion  of  Nicaragua,  the  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  a single  chamber  elected  by  the 
people.  Each  republic  has  a president  elected  by  direct  vote, 
who  holds  office  from  four  to  six  years.  Like  all  the  other 
Latin  republics,  the  three  departments  of  government  are  dis- 
tinctly divided  into  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial. 

The  two  republics  on  the  island  of  Haiti  are  also  centralized 
states.  Each  has  a legislative  assembly  composed  of  two 
houses,  a president  with  a cabinet,  and  a supreme  court. 

Haiti  is  divided  for  local  administration  into 
is^d^epubucs1116  fiye  departments,  while  Santo  Domingo  has 
twelve  provinces.  The  government  of  Cuba 
is  modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States,  and  is  the  only  one 
of  the  small  republics  which  has  a federal  form  of  government, 
though,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  a combination  of  the  centralized 
and  federal  form.  The  Cuban  province  is  less  important  than 
the  state  of  the  American  Union.  The  president  is  elected  by 
electors;  Congress  has  two  houses;  justice  is  administered  by 
courts  of  various  grades,  as  in  the  United  States.  Cuba  has 
six  provinces,  each  of  which  elects  its  own  governor,  though  the 
president  may  interfere,  if  necessary,  in  the  local  government, 
such  interference  being  subject  to  a review  of  the  courts. 

READING  REFERENCES 

The  constitutions  of  the  various  Latin  republics  may  be  found  in  Amer- 
ican Constitutions,  by  J.  I.  Rodriguez,  2 vols.  (1906);  also  in  Modem  Con- 
stitutions, by  W.  F.  Dodd  (1909). 

The  general  descriptive  pamphlets  of  the  Pan-American  Union  give  a 
brief  summary  of  the  constitution  and  government  of  the  respective 
republics. 

The  Mexican  Constitution  of  1917  compared  with  the  Constitution  of  1857 
(American  Academy  of  Political  Science,  1917,  Appendix),  by  H.  N. 
Branch. 

South  America,  by  James  Bryce,  Chapter  XV;  and  Latin  America,  by 
F.  Garcia  Calderon,  Chapter  III  of  Book  VI,  will  be  found  useful  in  study- 
ing the  governments  of  Latin  America. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA 

The  People  of  Latin  America 
The  race  composition  in  Latin  America  has  been  much 
misunderstood.  Many  still  think  of  Latin  Americans  as 
largely  of  European  stock.  But  the  people  of  South  Amer- 
ica are  not  properly  described  as  of  European  stock,  for  by 
far  the  largest  proportion  of  the  population  inhabiting  the 
The  People  of  Latin  various  countries  of  Latin  America  are  of 
America  Not  Pure-  native  stock.  The  mixing  of  the  Spaniards 
Blooded  Europeans  an(j  Portuguese  with  the  native  Indian  popu- 
lation began  with  the  colonization  period  and  has  continued 
without  interruption  until  the  present.  Hence  there  is  a very 
large  half-breed,  or  mestizo  class,  which  is  particularly  dense  in 
those  sections  of  Latin  America  where  the  early  colonizers 
came  in  contact  with  a comparatively  high  type  of  native 
civilization.  So  we  must  expect  to  find  the  largest  number  of 
mestizos  in  the  western  coast  republics  of  South  America,  and 
in  Central  America  and  Mexico,  for  it  was  here  the  Spaniard 
came  in  contact  with  Aztec  and  Inca  civilizations. 

Besides  this  large  half-breed  class  there  are  many  full- 
blooded  Indians  still  to  be  found  in  Latin  America.  Mexico, 
Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chile,  as  well  as  Brazil,  have 
large  numbers  of  full-blooded  Indians  living  within  their  bor- 
ders. At  least  thirty-five  per  cent  of  Mexico’s  population  are 
of  this  class,  while  Peru  has  sixty  per  cent.  In  Ecuador  at 
The  TnHiflnig  least  two  thirds  of  the  population  are  Indian, 

in  Bolivia  more  than  half,  while  Chile,  Co- 
lombia, and  Venezuela  have  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent 
Indians.  The  east  coast  countries  of  Brazil,  Argentina,  and 
Uruguay  have  a smaller  proportion,  though  Brazil  has  perhaps 
the  largest  number  of  wild  Indians.  Brazil’s  proportion  is  not 
more  than  ten  per  cent,  while  Argentina  has  not  more  than  ten 
thousand  all  told,  and  Uruguay  has  a still  smaller  proportion. 

221 


222 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Besides  these  two  large  classes  in  the  population  of  Latin 
America,  there  is  in  Brazil  especially  a large  Negro  population, 
both  full-blooded  and  mixed,  amounting  to  at  least  twenty 
per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  mixture  of  the  Indian  with  the 
Negro  is  known  as  the  zambo,  and  is  found  in  Brazil  and  Vene- 
zuela particularly.  The  presence  of  these  large  classes  of  ig- 
norant people  in  the  Latin-American  states  accounts  for  their 
lack  of  stability  in  government.  When  we  know  of  the  prev- 
alence of  the  Indian  in  Peru,  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  Colombia, 
Venezuela,  and  Mexico,  we  are  prepared  for  the  statement 
that  these  are  the  most  backward  of  the  Latin-American 
states. 

In  all  the  republics  it  is  the  small  white  population  which 
rules.  In  considering  this  class  we  must  first  of  all  remember 
that  they  are  themselves  a complex  race  and  that  they  have 
certain  Oriental  characteristics.  They  are  full  of  imagination; 
far  more  so  than  the  North  American.  They  are  likewise 
much  more  sentimental  and  impulsive.  They  have  high  ideals, 
Characteristics  of  the  which  they  seldom  succeed  in  putting  into 
Ruling  Race  in  Latin  practice.  They  are  an  exceedingly  polite 
race,  and  even  the  poorest  peon  is  a gentle- 
man toward  others.  In  this  respect  the  Latin  American  has 
much  to  teach  the  North  American.  Men  embrace  when  they 
meet  or  part,  and  their  family  life  is  most  affectionate.  They 
care  little  for  money  for  money’s  own  sake,  and  express  con- 
tempt for  those  who  exalt  the  dollar  above  everything  else,  as 
many  in  this  country  seem  to  do.  Human  life  is  held  cheap 
among  them,  due  to  their  long  contact  with  subject  races, 
over  whom  they  have  always  exercised  power  of  life  and  death. 
They  are  generous  toward  their  friends,  but  they  seem  to 
have  little  regard  for  the  public  good.  The  Latin  American 
responds  quickly  to  anything  said  or  done  which  shows  appre- 
ciation of  his  country  and  its  ways,  but  resents  criticism  which 
comes  from  those  whom  he  considers  no  farther  along  in  civili- 
zation than  himself. 

Judged  by  the  North  American,  the  moral  standards  of  the 
South  American  are  low.  In  those  South  American  states 
where  the  Indian  races  are  in  the  majority  moral  standards 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  223 


Morals  of  the  Latin 
Americans 


are  liable  to  be  drawn  from  the  Indian  and  not  from  the  Euro- 
pean stock.  The  Indian  or  half-breed  mother  gives  to  her 
child  her  own  moral  standard  rather  than  that  of  the  white 
father.  Marriage  is  ignored  to  an  alarming  extent  in  South 
America.  In  Lima  fifty-one  per  cent  of  the 
children  bom  are  illegitimate,  and  this  per- 
centage, while  not  the  same  throughout  all 
of  the  republics,  is  nevertheless  very  large  everywhere.  One 
of  the  reasons  given  why  the  young  men  of  South  America  are 
so  much  occupied  with  sex  thoughts  is  that  they  have  so  little 
to  do.  They  have  no  athletics,  games,  or  even  business,  to 
occupy  their  attention.  As  a consequence  family  life  is  not 
developed.  There  is  very  little  marriage  among  the  Cholos  of 
Bolivia,  which  is  true  also  of  the  Indians  in  all  of  the  west 
coast  countries.  Another  of  the  weaknesses  of  the  South 
American  is  alcoholism,  which  is  said  to  be  the  worst  in  the 
world  in  Chile.  The  Indians  especially  are  hard  drinkers, 
though  this  is  not  so  true  of  the  people  of  the  east  coast  coun- 
tries. 

The  weak  points  in  the  character  of  the  South  American 
may  be  summed  up  in  these  words — mutual  distrust,  excessive 
pride,  self-indulgence,  indolence,  and  want  of  persistence. 
Mutual  distrust  is  found  everywhere.  One  of  the  reasons  for 
the  turbulence  which  prevails  in  the  political 
life  of  the  Latin  Americans  is  their  distrust 
of  the  motives  of  others.  They  seem  almost 
incapable  of  working  together  in  a common  work  for  the  com- 
mon cause.  Joint  stock  companies  often  fail  for  this  reason. 
One  political  party  has  no  faith  in  the  motives  or  principles  of 
the  other.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  student  activities  in  the 
universities,  no  university  spirit,  no  class  feeling,  no  fraterni- 
ties. This  mutual  distrust  is  carried  into  every  phase  of  life, 
and  is  one  of  the  weaknesses  most  difficult  to  overcome,  for 
without  faith  of  people  in  one  another  it  would  be  impossible 
to  develop  modem  business  or  stable  government. 

Among  the  people  of  pure  white  blood  every  form  of  bodily 
exercise  is  avoided,  and  for  this  reason  there  is  a great  poverty 
of  physique  among  both  males  and  females.  Girls  are  taught 


Character  of  the 
Latin  Americans 


224 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


nothing  about  housekeeping,  while  the  young  men  idle  away 
their  time.  The  South  American  seems  to  have  no  shame 
about  giving  up.  They  are  good  beginners  but  poor  finishers, 
and  the  sneer  of  “quitter”  is  never  heard.  A recent  traveler 
in  South  America  has  noted  the  great  number  of  unfinished 
monuments  in  Bolivia,  an  indication  of  this  characteristic,  or 
rather  failing,  of  the  Latin  American. 

The  mestizo,  the  result  of  the  mixture  of  the  white  and  In- 
dian races,  tends  to  increase  the  most  rapidly,  while  the  pure- 
blooded  Indian  is  on  the  decrease.  Physically  the  mestizo  is 
undersized,  smaller  than  either  of  the  races  from  which  they 
have  sprung.  They  are  a Spanish-speaking  people  and  nom- 
inally Christian,  but  they  are  superstitious,  and  in  most  cases 
_ „ . extremely  apathetic.  In  spite  of  their  back- 

ward  condition,  however,  there  are  many  who 
consider  the  mestizo  as  the  coming  race  in  Latin  America, 
especially  in  the  west  coast  region,  and  the  development  of 
these  countries  seems  to  depend  largely  upon  the  development 
of  this  half-breed  race.  The  proportion  of  mestizos  in  the 
various  republics  is  as  follows:  Mexico,  50  per  cent;  Peru,  30; 
Brazil,  30;  Ecuador,  25;  Bolivia,  from  30  to  40;  Colombia,  40; 
Venezuela,  70;  Chile,  60;  while  Argentina  and  Uruguay  have 
the  smallest  proportion,  only  a small  fraction  of  their  respective 
populations  belonging  to  this  class. 

Ranking  lowest  in  the  social  scale  come  the  Negro  and  zambo, 
the  latter  the  result  of  the  mixing  of  the  Indian  and  the  Negro 
races.  Ecuador  and  Peru  have  a few  thousands  of  this  class, 
while  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil  have  a much  larger 
number.  In  Colombia  thirty-five  per  cent  of 

The  Negro  Element  ...  , , 

the  population  is  represented  by  the  Negro 
and  the  mixtures  of  Negroes  with  other  races.  Venezuela  has 
perhaps  a ten-per-cent  Negro  population,  while  in  Brazil  the 
Negro  element  is  larger  and  more  important  than  in  any  of  the 
Latin-American  states.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  slavery 
continued  to  exist  in  Brazil  longer  than  in  any  of  the  other 
states,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  race  mixture  has  gone  on  there 
with  less  hindrance  from  the  beginning. 

Latin  America  as  a whole  has  many  races  and  many  castes, 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  225 


and  to  procure  the  best  results  in  a republic,  unity  of  race, 
language,  and  ideals  must  somehow  be  achieved.  So  far  Latin 
America  has  been  governed  by  the  pure  white  race,  while  the 
Indian  and  the  mestizo  have  been  practically  serfs.  Mean- 
while the  mestizo  has  gone  on  increasing,  while  the  Indian  is 
decreasing.  The  future  of  at  least  the  largest  number  of  Latin- 
American  states  seems  to  lie  with  the  mestizo. 

The  present  population  of  the  various  Latin-American  states 
is  as  follows:  Brazil  is  the  most  populous,  with  nearly  25,000,000 
of  people;  coming  next  to  Brazil  in  point  of  population  is 
Mexico,  with  from  15,000,000  to  17,000,000;  Argentina  ranks 
third,  with  an  estimated  population  of  between  7,000,000  and 
8,000,000;  Chile’s  population  is  nearly  3,500,000;  Peru’s  is  esti- 
mated at  from  3,500,000  to  4,000,000,  while  the  populations  of 
Bolivia  and  Ecuador  approach  2,000,000  each;  like  most  of 
the  other  Latin-American  states,  the  populations  of  Venezuela 

and  Colombia  can  only  be  estimated,  as  there 

Population 

has  been  no  careful  census  in  either  country 
in  recent  years;  Colombia’s  population  cannot  exceed  4,000,- 
000,  while  that  of  Venezuela  is  not  more  than  2,750,000.  Uru- 
guay has  about  1,000,000  people,  while  Paraguay  has  something 
less  than  1,000,000.  The  total  population  of  the  Central 
American  states  does  not  exceed  5,000,000,  distributed  about 
as  follows:  Guatemala,  2,000,000;  Honduras,  553,000;  Nica- 
ragua, 600,000;  Salvador,  1,700,000;  Costa  Rica,  386,000; 
Panama,  336,000.  Cuba  has  a population  of  2,162,000,  while 
the  two  republics  in  the  island  of  Haiti  have  a population  of 
about  2,000,000  in  the  Republic  of  Haiti  and  673,611  in  the 
Dominican  Republic.  The  total  population  of  the  whole  of 
Latin  America  is  nearly  75,000,000. 

European  Population 

The  countries  to  which  most  of  the  European  peoples  immi- 
grate are  Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  and  Uruguay.  Italians 
have  come  out  to  South  America  in  great  numbers,  constituting 
the  largest  single  contribution  in  recent  years  to  the  pure  white 
population  of  the  three  eastern  republics.  The  total  immigra- 
tion into  Argentina  from  1857  to  1908  was  4,250,000,  of  whom 


226 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Foreign  Population 
and  Immigration  to 
Argentina,  Brazil, 
Chile,  and  Uruguay 


1.750.000  were  Italians;  670,000  Spaniards;  40,000  British; 

26,000  Germans;  25,000  Swiss,  and  20,000 
Belgians.  In  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil, 
there  is  a compact  colony  of  over  1,000,000 
Italians.  Immigration  and  colonization  in 

Brazil  are  increasing.  The  German  population  in  1906  was 
estimated  at  from  350,000  to  500,000.  They  were  situated 
mostly  in  the  southern  states.  In  1911  there  were  134,000 
immigrants  registered  in  Brazil.  Of  these  47,764  were  Portu- 
guese; 22,820  Italians;  13,900  Russians;  4,220  Turks;  5,850 
British,  while  Spaniards,  French,  and  Swedes  number  some 
thousands  each.  Of  the  total  population  of  Brazil  only  seven 
per  cent,  however,  are  foreign.  Chile  has  made  considerable 
effort  to  secure  European  immigration.  Germans  have  settled 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  country,  where  they  have  built 
several  important  towns  and  agricultural  communities,  though 
the  actual  number  of  Germans  in  the  country  is  not  large.  In 
1895  the  foreigners  in  the  Chilean  population  were  not  more 
than  75,000.  In  1907  the  immigration  to  Uruguay  included 

26.000  Italians,  22,000  Spanish,  and  over  2,000  each  of  British, 
Germans,  and  French. 

Mexico’s  foreign  population  does  not  number  more  than 
60,000,  with  Spaniards  the  most  numerous,  and  Americans 
next.  Peru  and  Venezuela  have  a small  foreign  population, 
and  in  the  latter  country  there  are  a considerable  number  of 
Asiatics,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  One  of  the  most  important 
problems  in  Latin  America  is  the  obtaining  of  immigrant  labor. 
Argentina  and  Brazil  maintain  immigration  service,  and  such 
inducements  are  offered  as  free  lodging,  food,  and  medical 
service  for  five  days,  free  transportation  into  the  interior,  and 
land  at  a nominal  price.  One  of  the  chief  obstacles  to  immi- 
gration is  the  fact  that  the  land  along  the  railroads  and  about 
the  seaports  is  held  in  immense  estates,  and  it  is  very  difficult 
problems  and  to  obtain  small  holdings.  Chile  provides  free 

Difficulties  of  im-  passage  for  immigrants  from  European  ports, 
migration  and  a free  grant  of  land  of  ninety-four  acres 

for  each  head  of  a family  and  forty-four  additional  acres  for 
each  son  over  ten  years  of  age.  In  addition  a loan  is  obtainable 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  227 


Unfavorable  Con- 
ditions for  American 
and  English 
Immigration 


from  the  government  during  the  first  year,  as  well  as  other 
aids.  Peru  is  also  very  desirous  of  immigration,  but  so  far 
promotion  of  colonization  has  been  left  to  private  enterprise. 
Mexico  also  offers  inducements  for  immigrants,  such  as  free 
transports  of  immigrants  to  the  interior,  as  well  as  free  tools, 
seed,  and  other  helps. 

So  far  the  great  body  of  immigrants  to  Latin-American  coun- 
tries has  come  from  the  countries  of  southern  Europe,  while 
people  from  northern  Europe  have  not  come  out  in  any  great 
numbers.  In  1901  the  total  number  of  Italians  in  South  Amer- 
ica was  about  1,750,000,  of  which  number  at  least  1,600,000 
were  in  Argentina  and  Brazil.  Present  con- 
ditions in  Latin  America  are  not  favorable 
for  immigration  from  the  British  Isles  or  from 
America  for  the  reason  that  educated  men  of 
small  capital  will  find  little  opportunity  in  these  countries,  unless 
they  receive  a salary.  The  work  in  shops  and  stores  is  done  in 
Latin  America  by  the  middle-class  natives  at  a very  low  wage. 
The  English  workman  coming  to  Latin  America  would  be 
compelled  to  work  among  half-breeds,  which  the  average  Eng- 
lish and  American  will  hardly  consent  to  do.  If  suitable  con- 
ditions could  be  secured  for  this  class  of  immigration  it  would 
no  doubt  prove  greatly  beneficial  for  those  countries. 

The  greatest  social  problem  which  confronts  Latin-American 
countries  is  the  uplifting  of  their  working  classes.  Agricultural 
and  mining  labor  throughout  these  countries  is  made  up  of 
half-breeds  or  Indians.  Mexico  has  15,000,000  peons — Indians, 
The  Problem  of  and  half-breeds.  In  Peru,  Ecuador,  Bolivia, 
Uplifting  the  Working  Colombia,  and  Venezuela  the  great  mass  of 
Cksses  the  population  is  of  this  same  class,  while 

Chile,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Argentina  are  little  better  off  in 
this  respect.  Part  of  this  problem  may  be  solved  by  increased 
education.  Until  intelligence  becomes  more  widespread  real 
democracies  are  impossible.  “The  power  of  a people  to  help 
itself  and  throw  off  the  oppressions  of  an  upper  class  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  stage  of  its  education.” 

The  Spanish  colonists  were  builders  of  cities,  and  the  cities  of 
Latin  America  to-day  are  developed  far  beyond  the  country 


228 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


districts.  The  largest  of  the  Latin-American  cities  is  Buenos 
Ayres,  the  capital  of  Argentina,  which  is  the  second  Latin  city 
in  the  world.  The  population  is  over  1,500,000.  The  city  is 
largely  built  of  brick  covered  with  stucco,  the  architecture 
being  Italian,  with  an  excess  of  ornament.  In  many  respects 
Buenos  Ayres  is  like  Chicago,  being  the  great  grain-shipping 
port  of  South  America.  Rosario  is  the  second  city  in  Argen- 
tina, situated  some  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles  up  the 
Parana,  with  a population  of  250,000.  Other  Argentina  cities, 
ranging  from  30,000  to  90,000  inhabitants,  are  La  Plata,  Cor- 
doba, Mendoza,  and  Tucuman.  Montevideo,  the  capital  of 
Uruguay,  is  also  an  important  shipping  point  with  over  300,000 
people  and  is  one  of  the  most  pleasing  of  South  American 

cities.  In  many  respects  the  most  beautiful 

Latin  American  Cities  . . _ . . 

city  m Latm  America  is  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
situated  on  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world,  with  snow- 
clad  mountains  in  the  background.  The  population  of  Rio  is 
nearly  1,000,000.  Other  large  and  important  Brazilian  cities 
are  Bahia,  with  some  200,000  people;  S3o  Paulo,  with  350,000; 
and  Santos,  the  port  of  Sao  Paulo.  Santiago,  the  capital  of 
Chile,  is  the  largest  city  on  the  western  coast,  with  a population 
of  400,000.  Valparaiso  is  the  most  important  port  on  the 
Pacific  coast  in  South  America,  while  two  hundred  miles  to  the 
north  is  Coquimbo,  another  important  Chilean  port.  The 
two  most  important  cities  in  Peru  are  Lima,  with  150,000 
people,  and  Callao,  the  seaport  of  Lima,  with  a population  of 

35.000.  As  a commercial  center  Callao  is  second  only  to  Val- 
paraiso. Quito  and  Guayaquil  are  the  two  largest  cities  in 
Ecuador,  the  former  with  80,000  and  the  latter  with  60,000  peo- 
ple. Bogota,  the  capital  of  Colombia,  has  a population  of 

120.000,  while  Caracas,  the  capital  of  Venezuela,  has  a popula- 
tion of  73,000.  Mexico  City  has  a population  of  344,721,  while 
Guadalajara  is  the  second  city  in  Mexico,  with  101,208  people. 

Education 

In  colonial  times  whatever  educational  facilities  existed  in 
the  Spanish  or  Portuguese  colonies  were  under  the  control  of 
the  Roman  Church.  Such  education  was  based  upon  dogma- 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  229 


Early  Education 


Constitutional  Pro- 
visions {or  Education 


tism  and  obedience  and  there  was  no  general  and  popular 
education,  as  in  the  modem  sense.  The  uni- 
versities were  designed  to  train  men  for  the 
priesthood,  and  the  whole  system  was  ecclesiastical  and  aris- 
tocratic. Latin  America  has  never  entirely  broken  away  from 
this  type  of  education.  A number  of  the  older  universities  are 
still  under  the  control  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  in  a number 
of  instances  the  church  controls  both  primary  and  secondary 
education. 

Most  of  the  leaders  in  the  Latin-American  states  have  rec- 
ognized the  importance  of  education  in  the  development  of 
their  respective  countries,  and  all  of  the  constitutions  have 
made  provision  for  the  carrying  out  of  a comprehensive  edu- 
cational program.  Recent  leaders  have  realized  that  popular 
government  can  rest  only  upon  popular  intelligence,  and  where 
ignorance  and  illiteracy  exist  real  democratic  government  is 
impossible.  Each  government  has  its  min- 
ister of  education  or  a department  of  educa- 
tion under  some  other  officer.  Practically 
every  republic  has  a system  of  free,  compulsory  primary  educa- 
tion, while  some  of  the  more  advanced  countries  have  likewise 
free  secondary  schools.  In  most  instances  the  government  also 
maintains  certain  colleges  and  universities.  On  paper  these 
educational  systems  leave  little  to  be  desired,  but,  like  many 
other  things  in  Latin  America,  there  is  a considerable  difference 
between  plan  and  practice.  Popular  education  has  never  really 
germinated  in  Latin  America.  It  has  always  entered  the  coun- 
try by  way  of  the  capital  and  has  never  become  a popular  ideal. 
“It  has  been  introduced  by  idealists  and  social  reformers;  it 
has  never  become  a popular  demand.” 

The  most  advanced  republics  from  the  educational  stand- 
point are  Argentina,  Chile,  and  Uruguay.  Argentina  owes 
much  of  her  educational  advance  to  the  pioneer  work  of  Sar- 
miento,  who  became  president  in  1868,  and  at  once  began 
promoting  education.  He  commissioned  Dr.  William  Good- 
fellow,  an  American  missionary,  to  send  out  American  women 
to  establish  normal  schools,  where  teachers  could  be  trained. 
These  were  loyally  supported,  and  this  gave  Argentina  the 


230 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Education  in 
Argentina  and  Chile 


lead  in  educational  matters  for  many  years.  Primary  educa- 
tion is  free  and  compulsory,  but  at  the  present  time  of  the  total 
number  of  children  of  primary  age  only 
about  half  are  in  school.  Secondary  educa- 
tion is  not  compulsory  in  Argentina,  though 
the  government  maintains  nearly  thirty  secondary  and  thirty- 
five  normal  schools.  There  are  three  universities,  Cordoba,  one 
of  the  very  old  universities  in  Latin  America,  and  La  Plata  and 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  last  two  being  comparatively  young  institu- 
tions. Chile  maintains  over  2,500  primary  schools,  some  75 
secondary  schools,  16  training  colleges,  as  well  as  6 agricultural 
colleges,  10  commercial  schools,  3 mining  schools,  and  29  tech- 
nical schools  for  women,  where  all  kinds  of  practical  work  are 
taught;  also  a school  of  art,  music,  and  drama.  Chile  owes 
much  of  her  educational  advance  to  the  work  of  Balmaceda. 
There  are  two  Chilean  universities,  a National  University  and 
a Catholic  University.  Education  in  Uruguay  ranks  about 
equal  with  Argentina,  and  less  than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  people 
are  illiterate. 

The  educational  system  in  Brazil  differs  somewhat  from  most 
of  the  other  states,  in  that  the  federal  government  provides  the 
higher  education,  while  the  primary  education  is  left  to  the 
several  states.  Naturally,  there  is  a great  difference  among 
the  states  in  the  way  they  maintain  their 
System 'oT Brazil  schools.  The  most  progressive  states,  Minas 

Geraes,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  Sao  Paulo, 
have  over  half  of  the  public  schools.  Brazil  has  no  universities, 
but  maintains  separate  schools  of  medicine,  law,  engineering, 
etc.  Neither  has  it  any  central  educational  organization, 
which  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  The  government  has  recently 
passed  a new  educational  law  abolishing  the  degree  of  doctor, 
maintaining  that  such  a degree  is  undemocratic. 

In  the  west-coast  countries  and  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela 
education  is  in  a more  backward  state.  Peru  has  a free  and 
compulsory  primary  educational  system,  though  only  a small 
proportion  of  the  children  of  school  age  are  actually  in  school. 
Bolivia  also  has  a free  and  compulsory  educational  system,  the 
primary  schools  being  under  the  control  of  the  municipalities. 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  231 


Backward  Educational 
Conditions  in  Peru, 
Bolivia,  Ecuador, 
Colombia,  Venezuela, 
and  Paraguay 


The  total  number  of  primary  schools  in  Bolivia  does  not  exceed 
600,  with  not  more  than  40,000  pupils.  In  Peru  something 
over  100,000  receive  instruction,  while  over  300,000  children  of 
school  age  are  not  in  school.  Illiteracy  in  both  countries  is  very 
great.  In  Ecuador,  in  1900,  there  were 
80,000  children  in  attendance  upon  the  1,300 
primary  schools,  and  4,500  pupils  in  the  37 
secondary  schools.  Ecuador  maintains  three 
universities,  namely,  Quito,  Guayaquil,  and 
Cuenca,  while  there  is  also  at  Quito  an  agricultural  and 
military  school,  and  a naval  school  at  Guayaquil.  In  1908 
there  were  in  Venezuela  1,150  public  schools  with  36,000  pupils, 
and  a considerable  number  of  parochial  schools.  There  is  a 
university  at  Caracas,  and  also  one  at  Merida,  as  well  as  sev- 
eral professional  schools.  In  Colombia  the  educational  system 
is  still  under  the  control  of  the  church,  and  in  many  respects 
Colombia  lags  behind  most  of  the  other  states  in  its  educational 
system.  In  1906  there  were  219,000  in  all  the  schools,  primary, 
secondary,  and  universities.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  people, 
however,  are  illiterate.  There  are  two  universities,  one  at 
Bogota,  and  the  other  at  Medellin,  while  there  are  also  a few 
normal  schools,  as  well  as  agricultural  and  technical  schools. 
Paraguay  stands  at  the  bottom  of  the  list  from  the  educa- 
tional standpoint,  although  primary  education  is  free  and  com- 
pulsory. 

The  educational  situation  in  Mexico  is  fairly  good.  The  laws 
provide  for  a free  compulsory  and  nonsectarian  education,  and 
also  preparatory  courses  for  professional  training  are  likewise 
free.  In  1904  there  were  9,000  public  schools,  about  two  thirds 
maintained  by  the  government,  with  about  650,000  pupils. 
Besides  these  schools  there  are  private  and  religious  schools 
with  some  135,000  pupils.  The  old  Univer- 
and^enteaT America  sity  °f  Mexico  ceased  to  exist  in  1865  and  was 
succeeded  by  professional  schools  maintained 
by  the  government.  The  proportion  of  illiteracy  in  Mexico, 
however,  is  very  high,  being  nearly  eighty-five  per  cent.  In 
the  Central  American  republics  primary  education  is  free  and 
compulsory,  though  lack  of  funds,  public  unrest,  and  lack  of 


232 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


interest  have  worked  against  the  development  of  the  schools. 
Illiteracy  in  most  of  the  states  is  very  high,  being  at  least 
eighty  per  cent  in  Guatemala.  The  most  progressive  state 
educationally  is  Costa  Rica. 

The  chief  enemies  of  education  in  Latin  America  are  the 
church  and  the  great  landed  proprietors.  The  proprietor  wants 
the  son  of  the  peon  to  walk  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father,  in 
order  that  the  son  may  remain  in  the  mud  hut  on  the  land. 
The  church  wants  the  peon  to  remain  in  ignorance  so  that  the 
priest  may  continue  to  exploit  him.  One  of  the  greatest  handi- 
Handicaps  Working  CaPS  ^ building  up  schools  throughout  South 
Against  Building  Up  America  and  in  Mexico  is  the  lack  of  village 

of  schools  in  Latin  and  town  life.  The  land  is  largely  held  by 

great  landlords,  while  the  people  who  till  the 
land  are  dependent  upon  the  owner  for  school  advantages,  and 
in  most  cases  he  makes  no  effort  to  provide  schools  for  the 
children  of  his  peons.  Another  lack  is  suitable  schoolhouses. 
In  most  instances  dwelling  houses  are  used  or  old  convents  or 
monasteries,  which  are  poorly  adapted  for  school  purposes. 
Suitable  teachers  are  also  hard  to  find.  In  some  instances 
teachers  are  being  trained  in  the  normal  schools,  but  so  far  the 
output  is  far  below  the  demand.  Teaching  methods  are  quite 
generally  very  crude,  the  pupils  learning  by  rote  and  studying 
aloud,  as  in  China.  Even  university  students  learn  chemistry 
by  committing  formulae  rather  than  by  the  laboratory  method. 

Latin- American  Literature 

Since  their  independence  the  Latin-American  states  have  de- 
veloped a rich  literature,  which  is,  however,  little  known  among 
North  Americans  or  Europeans.  The  literature  immediately 
succeeding  the  revolutions  followed  classic  models,  which  in 
turn  gave  way  to  romanticism.  One  South  American  sum- 
marizes the  literature  of  this  period  thus:  “All  things  favored 
romanticism;  the  political  conflicts  and  the  anarchy  of  the 
time  formed  Byronic  heroes.  . . . Melancholy,  exasperated  in- 
dividualism, . . . are  reflected  in  American  literature.”  Among 
the  poets  of  this  period  are  Car,  of  Colombia;  Andrade,  of 
Argentina;  and  Salaverry,  of  Peru.  To  the  Latin-American 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  233 


poet  of  this  period  romanticism  was  not  simply  a matter  of  art, 
but  grew  out  of  his  own  life.  Of  the  poets  of  this  school  An- 
drade stands  out  as  the  greatest.  In  recent  years  Latin- 
American  literature  has  been  influenced  by  French  models. 
Among  contemporary  writers  are  Manuel  Ugarte,  of  Argen- 
tina; Ricardo  Palma,  of  Peru;  Ricardo  Rojas,  of  Argentina; 
and  others  of  equal  note.  Latin  Americans  have  written  in 
recent  years  novels  and  short  stories  of  great  brilliancy.  The 
novelists  have  rich  and  subtle  vocabularies,  and  an  artistic 
sense  which  gives  them  a flavor  quite  their  own.  In  recent 
years  South  Americans  have  also  begun  to  interpret  their  own 
history  and  ideals.  Among  this  type  are  the  brilliant  books 
by  F.  Garcia-Calderon  of  Peru,  Latin  America,  Its  Rise  and 
Progress,  and  The  Two  Americas,  by  ex-President  Reyes,  of 
Colombia,  both  of  which  have  been  translated  into  English. 

The  most  important  newspaper  center  in  Latin  America  is 
Buenos  Ayres.  The  two  principal  daily  papers,  La  Presna 
and  La  Nacion,  have  a circulation  of  more  than  one  hun- 
dred thousand  copies.  These  papers  are  modem  in  every 
respect,  with  cabled  news  from  every  part  of  the  world.  Be- 
sides these  prominent  papers  are  many  vernacular  newspapers 
published  in  Buenos  Ayres.  The  papers  are  more  like  those 
in  America  than  the  European  papers,  in  that  they  are  some- 
what sensational.  Of  the  periodicals  published  in  the  capital 
of  Argentina,  214  are  in  Spanish,  22  in  Italian,  8 in  German, 
10  in  English,  and  others  in  Russian,  French, 
Basque,  and  Scandinavian.  The  oldest  news- 
paper in  Chile  is  El  Mercurio,  which  was 
established  in  1827.  In  1910  there  were  in  Chile  419  periodical 
publications.  Of  these  100  were  published  in  the  capital,  37  in 
Coquimbo,  32  in  Valparaiso,  23  in  Concepcion.  In  Mexico  the 
press  has  played  a considerable  part  since  1884.  In  this  year 
the  first  newspapers  were  sold  upon  the  streets  of  Mexico,  and 
since  that  date  they  have  taken  on  the  character  of  modern 
dailies.  In  1910  there  were  225  periodicals  in  the  capital, 
among  them  being  10  Spanish  dailies,  2 English,  and  1 French. 
The  cities  of  Brazil  are  also  well  supplied  with  newspapers,  as 
are  also  Peru  and  Uruguay.  In  Bolivia  daily  newspapers  are 


Latin  American 
Newspapers 


234 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


published  in  the  more  important  cities  and  at  least  a weekly 
paper  is  published  in  every  department  capital.  The  Vene- 
zuelan newspapers  are  distinguished  by  their  literary  character. 
All  the  Central  American  states,  as  well  as  the  republics  of 
Haiti,  Santo  Domingo,  and  Cuba,  have  numerous  newspapers. 


The  Religious  Situation  in  Latin  America 

From  the  first  Latin  America  has  been  devoutly  Roman 
Catholic.  As  has  been  pointed  out  in  a previous  chapter,  one 
of  the  chief  motives  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  coloniza- 
tion and  conquest  of  Central  and  South  America  was  religious. 
Queen  Isabella  was  particularly  interested  in  the  conversion  of 
the  Indians,  and  this  duty  was  continuously  urged  upon  the 
discoverers  and  explorers.  The  expeditions  of  every  important 
explorer  carried  priests;  at  every  opportunity  native  temples 
introduction  of  were  turned  into  Christian  churches,  mass 

Christianity  into  Latin  was  said,  and  the  natives  were  induced  to  be 
Amenca  baptized  by  the  wholesale.  The  pious  names 

which  are  found  everywhere  in  Latin  America  are  a testimony 
to  the  religious  fervor  of  the  early  explorers  and  conquerors. 
Representatives  of  the  religious  orders,  especially  the  Francis- 
cans and  Dominicans,  as  well  as  secular  priests,  came  out  in 
large  numbers.  After  the  organization  of  the  Jesuits  they  be- 
came active  in  missionary  work,  achieving  their  greatest  suc- 
cesses in  Brazil  and  Paraguay.  The  Catholicism  brought  to 
America  was,  of  course,  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  type.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  colonial  period  Spain  had  just  passed 
through  a Catholic  revival;  the  church  had  been  thoroughly 
cleansed  and  rendered  especially  efficient.  The  Inquisition  had 
also  been  established  just  a few  years  before  Columbus  made 
his  first  voyage  and  enthusiasm  for  religion  had  become  one 
of  the  chief  Spanish  traits. 

The  methods  used  in  converting  the  Indians  have  not  served 
to  make  of  them  real  Christians.  Too  often  the  missionaries 
were  satisfied  with  simply  a nominal  acceptance  of  Christianity 
on  the  part  of  the  natives  and  no  adequate  effort  was  made  to 
instruct  them  in  the  principles  of  Christianity.  Too  often  also 
the  Spanish  conqueror  imposed  his  religion  on  the  natives  by 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  235 


force  and  to-day  the  religion  of  the  natives  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  and 
Ecuador  impresses  the  traveler  as  “a  timid 
co7vertedMthTi^Ss and  superstitious  submission,  without  confi- 
dence and  zeal.”  As  a result  of  these  methods 
the  Indian  in  South  America  to-day  is  a nominal  Christian  only, 
while  at  heart  he  is  still  a pagan.  He  still  worships  images  made 
of  clay,  while  in  time  of  drought  he  worships  lakes,  rivers,  and 
springs.  When  frost  threatens  he  adores  the  stars,  lights  bon- 
fires, and  buys  masses.  He  still  consults  the  future  by  opening 
animals  and  inspecting  the  entrails,  just  as  the  priests  were 
doing  when  Cortes  entered  the  Aztec  capital.  Every  village 
has  its  chapel,  where  abides  the  patron  saint,  and  every  year 
there  is  celebrated  a great  eight-day  feast  in  honor  of  the  saint, 
in  which  drunkenness,  dancing,  and  carousal  are  the  chief 
features. 

The  type  of  piety  seen  commonly  in  Latin  America  strikes 
one  as  more  mediaeval  than  modem.  There  are  many  wonder- 
working shrines  throughout  every  Latin-American  country  and 
to  these  come  hundreds  of  credulous  people.  Such  a shrine  is 
to  be  found  in  a church  at  Cordoba,  Argentina,  and  another  in 
Santos,  Brazil.  Following  the  custom  of  applying  pious  names 
to  places,  begun  by  the  early  discoverers,  the 

Latin  American  Piety  , _ . . • , . . 

modem  Latin  American  displays  such  signs  as 
“Butcher  Shop  of  the  Holy  Spirit,”  “Furniture  Shop  of  the 
Saviour.”  A certain  bottling  house  in  Pern  calls  its  product 
“Jesus  Water,”  while  on  a certain  Good  Friday  a magazine 
came  out  with  a picture  advertising  a brand  of  cigarettes,  show- 
ing Christ  in  the  foreground,  and  Judas  and  others  in  the  back- 
ground, all  smoking  that  particular  brand  of  cigarette.  Judas 
is  remarking,  “If  I had  had  such  cigarettes  to  smoke,  I wouldn’t 
have  betrayed  Him.”  As  a whole  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Latin  America  has  little  to  resemble  the  same  church  in  the 
United  States  and  there  seems  little  chance  of  things  improving 
until  education  and  intelligence  become  much  more  common 
than  at  present. 

Bolivar  opposed  the  union  of  church  and  state,  stating  that 
“no  religious  creed  or  profession  should  be  prescribed  in  a 
political  constitution,”  but  in  spite  of  his  opposition  every 


236 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


state  when  it  drew  up  its  constitution  declared  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  be  the  established  church,  and  outlawed 
all  other  creeds.  It  was  not  long,  however,  until  the  Catholic 
Church  began  to  give  trouble  in  the  newly  organized  republics, 
and  in  every  country  parties  came  into  existence  opposed  to 
the  church,  or  at  least  opposed  to  the  con- 
La tin  America1^  m tr°l  of  the  church  in  political  affairs.  This 
party  generally  took  the  name  of  Liberal, 
while  the  church  party  was  called  the  Conservative.  The 
question  of  the  taxation  of  church  lands  also  became  a serious 
problem,  and  when  non-Catholics  began  to  come  into  several 
of  the  republics  the  question  of  religious  liberty  also  arose. 
These  problems  led  to  the  passage  of  more  liberal  laws  and  to 
the  recognition  of  other  religious  bodies  until  at  the  present 
time  practical  religious  liberty  is  found  in  every  country  in 
Latin  America.  Peru  and  Bolivia  were  the  last  countries  to 
gain  religious  liberty.  The  church  fought  these  liberal  tend- 
encies and  the  pope  gave  his  aid,  but  the  tendency  in  the 
direction  of  liberal  ideas  was  too  strong  to  be  resisted,  and 
such  laws  as  the  secularization  of  cemeteries,  civil  marriage, 
and  the  registration  of  births,  as  well  as  the  recognition  of  the 
legality  of  other  denominations  besides  the  Catholic  have  been 
passed  everywhere  throughout  Latin  America. 

Church  and  state,  however,  are  not  separated  in  Latin 
America.  Maintenance  of  public  worship  is  generally  recog- 
nized as  a duty  of  the  state,  and  each  government  contributes 
to  the  church  for  that  purpose.  In  Peru  the  annual  sum  ap- 
propriated by  the  state  for  the  support  of  the  church  ranges 
from  $25,000  to  $100,000,  while  in  Chile  and  Argentina  nearly 
a half  million  is  contributed  yearly.  Besides  these  sums  con- 
tributed by  the  central  governments  local 
Estate* Church  authorities  make  special  contributions  for 
special  purposes,  such  as  the  upkeep  of  the 
church  and  the  bishop’s  residence.  In  most  instances  the 
state  makes  appropriations  for  the  support  of  church  schools, 
and  aids  in  the  erection  of  churches.  The  church  in  Latin 
America,  especially  on  the  west  coast,  is  a large  property  owner. 
The  church  property  in  Santiago  is  estimated  as  worth  $100,- 


RACES  AND  SOCIETY  IN  LATIN  AMERICA  237 


000,000  in  gold,  while  in  Ecuador  one  fourth  of  all  the  property 
in  the  country  is  held  by  the  bishop,  and  of  the  population  of 
the  country  ten  per  cent  are  priests,  monks,  or  nuns.  A recent 
traveler  and  student  of  Latin  America  observes,  “The  only 
hope  for  reforming  the  Church  in  these  countries  is  the  spur  of 
Protestant  competition”  (Ross,  p.  310). 

READING  REFERENCES 

Among  the  best  accounts  of  present-day  conditions  in  Latin  America 
is  The  Republics  of  South  and  Central  America  (1913),  by  C.  Reginald 
Enock.  Chapters  I and  XVI  bear  especially  on  social  conditions. 

South  America:  Observations  and  Impressions,  by  James  Bryce,  contains 
a number  of  chapters  descriptive  of  the  people  and  general  social  condi- 
tions. 

South  of  Panama  New  York  (1915),  by  E.  H.  Ross,  is  perhaps  the  best 
study  of  social  conditions  in  Latin  America  in  English. 

Latin  America,  by  F.  Garcia  Calderon,  contains  one  chapter  on  “The 
Problem  of  Race.” 

South  American  Problems,  by  R.  E.  Speer,  New  York  (1917),  discusses 
religious  and  educational  conditions,  though  with  a somewhat  Protestant 
bias. 

Latin  America  (1914),  by  George  H.  Blakeslee,  contains  several  papers 
which  bear  upon  the  educational  situation. 

The  Literary  History  of  Latin  America  (1916),  by  A.  L.  Coester  (1916), 
gives  the  fullest  account  of  Latin  American  literature  in  English. 

Latin  America,  by  F.  Garcia  Calderon,  also  contains  one  chapter  on 
literature. 

The  pamphlets  published  by  the  Pan-American  Union  give  brief  ac- 
counts of  the  press  in  the  several  Latin  American  countries,  as  well  as 
much  descriptive  material  relating  to  the  countries  and  cities. 


CHAPTER  XX 


Economic  Antecedents 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS  AND  INDUSTRIAL 
PROBLEMS 

Judged  by  the  economic  development  of  the  United  States, 
the  Latin-American  states  are  extremely  backward.  The  peo- 
ple of  Spanish  and  Portuguese  races  have  never  been  noted 
for  their  industry.  They  have  never  developed  a zeal  for 
manufacturing,  nor  have  they  been  noted  for  their  trade.  The 
Spaniard  of  the  conquest  despised  the  trader  and  depended 
upon  the  ignorant  and  downtrodden  Indian 
to  perform  all  of  his  manual  toil.  In  con- 
trast to  the  Spanish  settler  in  South  America  was  the  typical 
North  American.  He  was  accustomed  from  the  beginning  to 
toil  with  his  hands.  He  and  his  sons  worked  early  and  late, 
clearing  the  fields,  sowing  the  grain,  reaping  the  crops.  The 
descendants  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  conquerors,  how- 
ever, have  never  used  their  hands  in  manual  toil,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  conquerors  toward  manual  labor  is  still  that  of 
the  dominant  race.  These  different  points  of  view  in  respect 
to  toil  help  to  explain  the  difference  in  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  the  two  Americas. 

Another  factor  which  has  retarded  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  Latin  America  is  the  fact  that  there  is  practically  no 
middle  class  among  the  population.  It  has  generally  been  this 
class  which  has  built  up  industry  and  trade  throughout  the 
world.  The  class  coming  nearest  the  middle  class  in  America 
and  Europe  is  the  mestizo,  yet  he  has  not 
reached  that  stage  of  development  or  intel- 
ligence which  makes  possible  the  direction  of 
industry.  Nor  has  he  the  capital.  The  upper  classes  live  in 
the  cities,  generally  situated  along  the  coast,  as  they  have 
always  done,  while  the  back  country  has  been  left  undeveloped. 
Not  until  a middle  class  arises  in  Latin  America  will  conditions 
in  this  respect  undergo  much  change.  Already  in  Argentina 

238 


No  Middle  Class 
Economically 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


239 


a middle  class  has  arisen,  with  the  result  that  a better  eco- 
nomic foundation  has  been  established,  which  has  been  re- 
flected in  the  laws  and  the  government.  The  same  is  true 
to  a limited  extent  in  Chile,  Uruguay,  southern  Brazil,  and 
Peru. 

Two  other  factors  in  the  economic  progress  of  Latin  America 
are  climate  and  geography.  Both  North  and  South  America 
have  broad  bulges  in  the  northern  parts  and  taper  to  a point 
in  the  south,  “but  North  America  bulges  in  the  temperate 
zone  while  South  America  bulges  in  the  tropics.”  At  least 
four  fifths  of  South  America  is  in  the  tropics,  and  it  is  undoubt- 
cumate  and  edly  true  that  peoples  living  within  the  torrid 

Geography  and  Their  zone  have  not  been  noted  for  their  economic. 
Economic  influence  progress.  The  most  progressive  South  Amer- 
ican states  are  those  in  the  temperate  zone,  namely,  Argentina, 
Chile,  Uruguay,  and  southern  Brazil.  Nor  has  nature  been 
kind  to  South  America  in  its  geography.  Transportation  has 
been  made  exceedingly  difficult  because  of  the  Andes.  Travel 
from  coast  to  coast  in  North  America  is  comparatively  easy, 
but  in  South  America  there  is  one  stretch  of  the  Andes  two 
thousand  miles  long,  in  which  there  is  not  a pass  under  twelve 
thousand  feet.  The  Andes  are  also  responsible  for  the  coastal 
desert,  which  stretches  for  fifteen  hundred  miles  throughout 
Peru  and  northern  Chile.  Still,  again,  nature  has  not  been  kind 
to  South  America  in  that  she  has  no  adequate  deposits  of  coal. 
South  America  is  a coal-importing  country.  Chile,  the  largest 
coal-producing  district,  imports  half  of  its  supply  from  Aus- 
tralia and  the  British  Isles. 

In  the  matter  of  rivers  South  America  has  been  better  fa- 
vored. The  Amazon  and  the  La  Plata  are  two  wonderful  sys- 
tems and  are  navigable  for  a much  greater  distance  than  the 
Mississippi.  The  Amazon,  however,  drains  a tropical  country, 
where  there  has  been  little  economic  advance, 
and  the  same  is  also  true  of  the  Orinoco  and 
largely  so  of  the  La  Plata.  There  are  some 
possibilities  for  water  power  on  the  western  coast,  but  the  need 
of  water  for  irrigation  there  is  so  great  that  it  is  a question 
whether  both  can  be  adequately  supplied.  Undeveloped  water 


South  American 
Rivera 


240 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Latin  American 
Products 


power  also  exists  on  the  eastern  coast,  but  due  to  the  absence 
of  capital  it  has  never  been  utilized. 

The  three  chief  industries  of  Latin  America  are  agriculture, 
cattle-raising,  and  mining.  South  America  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal food-producing  sections  of  the  world,  and  for  that  reason 
is  becoming  increasingly  important.  In  the  production  of 
sugar,  cocoa,  and  coffee  Latin  America  is  preeminent,  while 
such  staples  as  wheat  and  meats  are  also  produced  in  increas- 
ing quantities.  Cotton,  wool,  rubber,  and 
leather  are  also  among  the  agricultural  pro- 
ducts, while  some  of  the  largest  untouched 
forests  in  the  world  are  to  be  found  here.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  Latin  America  is  enormous,  and  although  mining  operations 
have  been  carried  on  for  over  four  hundred  years,  they  are  not 
only  not  exhausted,  but  largely  undeveloped.  Iron  deposits 
are  found  in  Brazil,  Chile,  Peru,  and  Mexico;  copper  in  Chile 
and  Mexico;  silver  in  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Mexico,  and  gold  in 
the  west-coast  countries  in  the  alluvial  deposits.  Cattle- 
raising is  chiefly  carried  on  in  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  south- 
ern Brazil,  while  immense  flocks  of  sheep  are  raised  in  southern 
Argentina,  Chile,  and  Tierra  del  Fuego. 


Agriculture  and  Cattle-Raising 
The  most  advanced  Latin  American  states  are  those  in  which 
agriculture  forms  the  basis  of  wealth  and  prosperity.  Argen- 
tina owes  her  advance  to  agriculture  and  stock-raising.  In 
1908  the  live-stock  census  showed  there  were  in  Argentina 

29.000. 000  cattle,  67,000,000  sheep,  7,500,000  horses,  1,500,000 
hogs,  and  4,250,000  mules.  The  value  of  the  live-stock  indus- 
try, together  with  the  land,  is  calculated  at 
four  billion  gold  dollars.  In  agriculture  Ar- 
gentina has  made  rapid  advance.  In  1895  there  were  12,000,- 
000  acres  under  cultivation;  in  1908,  45,000,000  acres.  Of  this 

15.000. 000  was  in  wheat,  7,500,000  in  com,  12,000,000  in  alfalfa, 

1.500.000  in  oats,  400,000  in  flax,  187,000  in  sugar  cane,  and 

300.000  in  vines.  The  wheat  yield  in  tons  in  1908  was  5,250,- 
000  tons,  or  about  200,000,000  bushels.  Of  this  about  140,000,- 
000  bushels  was  exported.  The  production  of  wool  is  also 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


241 


important,  the  1908  value  of  wool  exports  being  something 
over  $45,000,000. 

Brazil  is  the  greatest  coffee-producing  country  in  the  world, 
and  Sao  Paulo  the  greatest  center  in  Brazil.  In  1850  the  yield 
of  coffee  was  103,000  bags,  or  about  14,000,000  pounds,  while 
in  1910  the  immense  quantity  of  1,626,310,000  pounds  was 
raised.  The  average  crop  is  about  12,000,000  bags.  Besides 
being  the  greatest  producer  of  coffee,  Brazil  in  1911  raised 
fifty  per  cent  of  the  world’s  output  of  cocoa, 
of  which  35,000  tons  were  exported.  Sugar 
and  cotton  are  also  important  crops.  There  are  as  many  as 
sixty  sugar  mills  in  the  vicinity  of  Pernambuco  alone.  The 
average  output  of  sugar  in  recent  years  is  about  350,000  tons. 
Rubber  grows  wild  in  Brazil,  along  the  Amazon,  and  forms  one 
of  the  important  products,  while  in  the  southern  part  cattle- 
grazing is  becoming  increasingly  productive.  Other  agricul- 
tural products,  such  as  mandioca  and  Paraguayan  tea,  are 
raised  in  large  quantities. 

In  Uruguay,  as  in  Argentina  and  Brazil,  cattle  and  agricul- 
ture form  the  greatest  source  of  wealth.  The  live-stock  in- 
dustry, however,  is  the  chief  activity.  An  estimate  of  the 
number  of  live  stock  in  Uruguay  in  1910  was 

Uruguay 

8,200,000  cattle,  25,000,000  sheep,  500,000 
hogs,  with  thousands  of  horses,  mules,  and  goats.  In  1910 
there  were  nearly  900,000  cattle  slaughtered.  Uruguay  has 
about  2,000,000  acres  devoted  to  agriculture,  and  of  the  pro- 
ducts wheat  leads,  followed  by  com,  barley,  oats,  linseed,  and 
bird  seed.  Tobacco  culture  has  recently  been  introduced  and 
promises  favorable  returns. 

In  1912  Chile  cultivated  over  2,000,000  acres  of  wheat,  with  an 
annual  average  yield  of  about  25,000,000  bushels.  About  half 
the  people  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  the  value  of  the 
chjie  products  amounting  to  $75,000,000.  In  the 

southern  part  of  the  country  pastoral  pur- 
suits are  becoming  more  important.  There  are  about  2,000,000 
sheep,  40,000  cattle,  25,000  horses,  besides  hogs,  mules,  and  goats. 
Chilean  wine  has  an  excellent  reputation,  as  has  also  honey. 

The  chief  crop  cultivated  in  Paraguay  is  “yerbe  mate,”  or 


242 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Paraguayan  tea,  a product  peculiar  to  the  country.  It  takes 
the  place  of  tea  and  coffee  among  a considerable  portion  of  the 
population  of  South  America.  Paraguay  is  very  fertile,  though 
as  yet  little  developed.  Corn  and  mandioca  form  the  principal 
food  of  the  country,  while  cattle  and  hogs  .are  raised  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  There  is  much  possibility  for  fruit-raising 
also,  for  the  orange  grows  abundantly,  although  as  yet  largely 
uncultivated.  Agriculture  is  an  important  source  of  wealth  in 
both  Venezuela  and  Colombia.  In  Venezuela  over  200,000 
acres  are  planted  in  coffee,  especially  in  the 
Para^av^ Venezuela,  northwestern  section  of  the  country.  Cocoa 
Colombia,  Guianas,  and  tobacco  are  important  crops  in  both 
EcMdor0liVm’ aDd  countries,  as  is  also  sugar.  Rubber  and 
cotton  form  another  considerable  portion  of 
the  wealth  of  these  countries.  Cocoa  is  one  of  the  chief  crops 
of  Ecuador,  where  vast  cocoa  groves  are  found.  Coffee  is 
largely  grown  for  domestic  use,  the  annual  crop  being  estimated 
at  7,000,000  pounds.  Cattle  breeding  flourishes  in  Ecuador, 
Venezuela,  and  Colombia,  and  in  the  uplands  sheep  are  raised 
for  mutton  and  wool.  Rubber  yields  about  1,000,000  pounds 
yearly,  while  the  annual  output  of  sugar  amounts  to  some 
16,000,000  pounds.  The  leading  crops  of  Peru  are  the  result 
of  irrigation  and  are  sugar,  cotton,  and  rice.  The  average 
annual  crop  of  sugar  is  150,000  tons.  Peruvian  cotton  is 
raised  also  by  irrigation,  as  many  as  five  pickings  being  ob- 
tained from  one  planting.  Alfalfa,  quinin,  and  potatoes  are 
important  products,  while  cattle-  and  sheep-raising  is  carried 
on  in  the  uplands.  The  principal  agricultural  products  of  the 
Guianas  are  sugar,  cocoa,  coffee,  timber,  and  rum.  In  Bolivia 
rubber  is  the  principal  agricultural  product,  while  cocoa  and 
coffee  are  cultivated  in  the  departments  of  La  Paz  and  Cocha- 
bamba. Cattle,  sheep,  and  llamas  are  abundantly  raised  both 
for  food  and  hides. 

The  annual  value  of  the  agricultural  products  of  Mexico 
exceeds  $200,000,000.  The  great  food  crop  is  Indian  com  and 
is  cultivated  in  every  state.  Mexico  was  the  original  home  of 
Indian  com.  Sugar,  cocoa,  coffee,  and  tobacco  are  other  im- 
portant crops.  Sugar  culture  is  confined  to  the  tropical  regions 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


243 


and  totals  more  than  250,000  tons  a year.  Mexico  has  four  other 
remarkable  crops : the  agave  Americana,  known  generally  as  the 
century  plant,  from  which  the  native  drink,  pulque,  is  made;  the 
chicle,  from  whose  sap  comes  chewing  gum ; the  guayule,  a 
shrub  which  grows  in  the  waste  places  of  Mexico,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  productive  of  rubber-producing  plants;  and  henequdn. 

The  export  of  guayule  in  1912  amounted  to 
and"  Central  'America0  4>130  tons>  valued  at  $4,967,560.  The  agri- 
cultural resources  of  Central  America  are 
abundant.  Coffee-raising  in  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua  is  an 
important  industry.  In  Guatemala  com  is  the  chief  food  crop, 
while  coffee  and  cotton  are  two  of  the  chief  crops  raised  for 
export.  Fruit  culture  is  becoming  increasingly  important  for 
the  Central  American  states,  and  the  export  of  bananas  is 
especially  large  in  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala,  and  Nicaragua. 
The  great  natural  product  of  Salvador  is  the  balsam  tree. 
About  130,000  pounds  of  balsam  are  exported  annually.  It  is 
used  in  surgery  for  its  antiseptic  qualities.  In  Honduras  and 
Panama  the  growing  of  bananas  for  export  is  the  most  im- 
portant industry,  though  coffee,  cocoa,  rubber,  and  sugar  are 
raised  in  increasing  quantities. 

The  chief  sources  of  the  agricultural  wealth  of  Cuba  are 
sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  cocoanuts,  and  cocoa,  though  such  crops 
as  rice,  com,  and  fruits,  such  as  the  pineapple,  citrus  fruit, 
and  oranges,  are  also  produced  in  abundance.  Cocoa,  cotton, 
and  sugar  are  likewise  the  chief  products  of 
Md  Haiti0  m CubS  the  island  of  Haiti.  The  sugar  industry  in 
Cuba  covers  the  greatest  extent  of  territory 
and  employs  the  greatest  number  of  men.  Cuba  has  long  been 
famous  for  its  tobacco,  and  millions  of  cigars  and  cigarettes 
are  manufactured  in  the  island.  The  coffee  industry  in  Cuba 
has  grown  since  the  island  became  independent  and  in  1907 
reached  a production  of  6,595,700  pounds.  Cocoanut-raising  is 
very  easy  and  profitable,  while  fruits  and  vegetables  can  be 
grown  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

Mining 

The  principal  source  of  wealth  in  Chile,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Co- 


244 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Chile  and  Bolivia 


lombia,  and  Mexico  is  the  mines.  The  chief  form  of  mineral 
wealth  in  Chile  is  nitrate.  The  nitrate  or  saltpeter  zone  in 
Chile  embraces  the  entire  north  end  of  the  country,  450  miles 
long.  The  nitrate  is  not  found  near  the  coast,  but  in  a barren 
and  waterless  plain  from  15  to  93  miles  from  the  sea,  at  an 
altitude  of  from  3,600  to  13,000  feet.  In  1912,  24,985,286 
quintals  (quintal  = 22.46  pounds)  were  exported,  and  “there  is 
a visible  supply  of  nitrate  mineral,  allowing 
for  increased  consumption,  for  at  least  the 
next  fifty  years.”  As  has  already  been  stated,  Chile  has  the 
only  coal  fields  in  Latin  America,  though  the  supply  is  not 
large  enough  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  country.  Bolivia 
produces  almost  all  the  known  metals,  which  are  both  widely 
distributed  and  abundant.  Bolivia  produces  one  fourth  of 
the  tin  of  the  world  and  this  at  present  is  the  leading  product 
of  the  republic.  Bolivia  produces  about  $350,000  worth  of 
gold  annually  and  $2,500,000  worth  of  silver,  while  the  value 
of  the  tin  output  is  about  $10,000,000  annually.  Coal  and 
petroleum  have  recently  been  discovered  in  Bolivia.  Bolivia 
is  one  of  the  three  countries  in  the  world  producing  bismuth. 

In  Peru  copper  occupies  the  chief  place  among  the  mineral 
productions,  while  the  total  mineral  output  of  the  country  is 
valued  at  about  $25,000,000  annually.  The  output  in  pounds 
is  56,000,000  pounds  of  copper,  240,000  pounds  of  silver,  5,000,- 
000  pounds  of  lead,  while  some  coal  and  petroleum  and  gold 
are  also  produced.  “Mining  is  the  most  highly  developed  and 
best  organized  of  Mexico’s  industries,  the  im- 
portance of  which  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
a recent  estimate  gives  the  amount  of  capital  engaged  as  $647,- 
200,000.  Of  this  amount  $409, 000, .000  was  American,  $87,200,- 
000  English,  $10,000,000  French,  and  $29,400,000  Mexican.” 
The  leading  mineral  exports  are  silver,  valued  at  $44,784,000; 
gold,  $24,952,000;  copper,  $13,285,000,  with  smaller  amounts 
of  lead  antimony  and  zinc  ore.  Mexico  is  rapidly  becoming 
one  of  the  principal  oil  fields  of  the  world.  In  1910  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  oil  wells  ever  found  was  opened  in  the  state 
of  Tampico.  Jets  of  oil  rose  to  a height  of  three  hundred  feet 
in  the  air  and  within  twenty-four  hours  produced  103,000 


Peru  and  Mexico 


AMERICA 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


245 


barrels.  In  1907  the  output  was  1,000,000  barrels;  in  1909, 
2,488,000  barrels;  in  1911,  12,629,000  barrels,  and  in  1912 
nearly  17,000,000  barrels. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  the  Central 
American  states  is  likewise  considerable.  In  Colombia  gold 
was  mined  in  the  early  years  of  Spanish  occupation,  and  these 
old  Spanish  mines  still  continue  to  produce.  Colombia  is  also 
famous  for  its  emerald  mines,  from  which  a million  and  a quar- 
Coiombia,  Venezuela,  ter  of  dollars’  worth  of  emeralds  have  been 
and  the  central  sold  annually  for  twenty  years.  Silver  is 
also  found  in  quantities  and  deposits  of  coal, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  and  cinnabar  are  known  to  exist.  In  Vene- 
zuela are  found  copper,  coal,  iron,  and  sulphur.  A deposit 
peculiar  to  the  island  of  Trinidad  and  Venezuela  is  that  of 
asphalt.  In  the  state  of  Bermudez  a lake  of  this  mineral  cov- 
ers a thousand  acres,  while  in  Trinidad  there  is  a lake  of  pure 
asphalt  a mile  and  a half  across.  This  mineral  is  finding  a 
wide  use  in  street-paving,  roofing,  etc.  The  Central  American 
states  are  also  rich  in  minerals,  such  as  gold,  silver,  copper, 
iron,  lead  and  zinc. 

Land,  Wages,  and  Labor 

One  of  the  chief  causes  for  the  backward  economic  develop- 
ment of  Latin  America  is  the  lack  of  an  intelligent  laboring 
class  and  the  unequal  distribution  of  land.  Throughout  Latin 
America  much  of  the  land  is  held  in  immense  estates  by  the 
white  population,  many  of  them  the  descendants  of  the  original 
conquistadores.  The  largest  private  estate  in  the  world,  the 
Terraza  Hacienda,  exists  in  Mexico  in  the  state  of  Chihuahua. 
It  contains  8,000,000  acres,  and  is  200  miles  long  and  145  miles 
wide.  Chile  is  completely  governed  by  the  large  landed  pro- 
The  Land  tion  prietors.  These  haciendados  hold  large  es- 
tates in  the  province  of  Santiago  particularly, 
while  other  sections  of  the  country  have  been  sold  in  great 
plots  to  speculators  or  capitalists  rather  than  to  settlers.  While 
the  land  situation  is  perhaps  at  its  worst  in  Chile,  yet  in  every 
Latin-American  country  the  same  condition,  more  or  less, 
prevails.  In  Argentina  single  proprietors  own  as  much  as 


246 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


300,000  to  500,000  acres,  while  in  the  territories  to  the  south 
are  holdings  of  over  1,000,000  acres.  In  1903  a new  land  law 
was  passed  in  Argentina  forbidding  the  alienation  of  more  than 
6,250  acres  to  a single  person.  In  Mexico  as  many  as  a thou- 
sand peon  families  live  on  the  estate  of  a single  proprietor. 
Conditions  in  Brazil,  Peru,  Colombia,  and  the  other  republics 
are  little  better,  and  there  are  few  small  landholders  anywhere 
in  Latin  America.  The  vast  majority  of  the  people  are  abso- 
lutely landless. 

The  proprietors  of  these  vast  estates  seldom  live  upon  them. 
In  Chile  the  haciendados  have  country  residences,  where  the 
family  lives  a few  months  in  the  year,  but  the  owner  and  his 
family  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in  the  town.  The 
owners  of  plantations  in  Peru,  Ecuador,  or  Colombia  ride  out 
from  the  towns  to  superintend  their  farms.  The  owner  thus 
is  compelled  to  leave  much  to  his  overseer,  who  robs  him  at 
every  turn,  and  the  soil  receives  poor  attention.  It  has  never 
been  the  custom  in  Latin  America  for  landed  proprietors  to 
live  on  their  estates,  not  even  in  colonial  times. 

Another  factor  in  the  economic  backwardness  of  Latin 
America  is  the  condition  of  labor.  Since  the  time  of  the  con- 
quests the  semicivilized  Indians  have  labored  for  the  ruling 
class.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  the  Indian  and  half-breed 
in  most  of  the  Latin-American  countries  is  practically  a serf. 
In  southern  Colombia,  for  instance,  the  agricultural  laborer 
works  four  days  each  week  upon  the  land  of  the  proprietor 
at  from  five  to  ten  cents  per  day,  in  return  for  his  patch 
and  house.  He  runs  in  debt  to  his  master  for  supplies,  and 
since  he  is  never  able  to  work  off  the  debt,  he  cannot  leave 
the  estate,  and  thus  he  becomes  a serf  for  life.  Much  the 

same  system  prevails  in  Ecuador,  though 

Agricultural  Labor  . ^ , , .111 

conditions  are  somewhat  better,  the  laborer 
receiving  from  twenty  to  forty  cents  per  day,  and  an  acre  of 
ground  to  cultivate  for  himself.  In  Bolivia  the  laborer  receives 
from  two  to  four  acres  to  cultivate,  in  return  for  which  he  gives 
from  two  to  four  days  each  week  to  the  owner,  for  which  he 
receives  no  other  wages  except  his  food.  Debt  slavery  is  not 
legal  in  Bolivia.  In  Chile  the  laborer  receives  from  two  to  six 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


247 


acres  for  his  own  cultivation,  and  in  addition  wages  varying 
from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  a day.  Independent  laborers  in  Chile 
receive  fifty  cents  a day.  In  Argentina  a better  condition  pre- 
vails, the  old  feudal  fetters  which  retard  labor  in  the  western 
countries  of  South  America  having  been  shaken  off  years  ago, 
and  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a peon  to  acquire  land  and  become 
a proprietor.  In  Mexico  the  peon  is  likewise  a semiserf,  the 
same  conditions  prevailing  there  which  one  meets  in  Colombia 
and  Chile.  The  Mexcian  peon  fives  in  a mud  hut,  without  any 
pretensions  to  comfort,  cooks  his  food  outside,  is  clothed  in 
cotton,  and  wears  sandals.  The  peons  constitute  by  far  the 
most  numerous  class  in  Mexico. 

In  the  cotton-  and  sugar-growing  regions  of  Brazil  Negro 
labor  is  used,  which  is  also  true  of  the  Guianas  and  Venezuela. 
It  is  stated  that  between  1825  and  1850  1,250,000  slaves  were 
landed  in  Brazil,  though  slavery  was  abolished  in  1888.  The 
Brazilian  Negro  is  easygoing,  and  he  is  usually  content  with 

just  enough  exertion  to  provide  himself  with 
Agncuiturai  Labor  m rude  necessities.  After  the  abolition  of 

slavery,  in  order  to  provide  labor  for  the  es- 
tates, Brazil  began  the  policy  of  establishing  colonies  for  foreign 
immigrants,  and  a great  wave  set  in,  especially  to  the  southern 
provinces.  Into  these  coffee-growing  states  in  southern  Brazil 
Germans  and  Italians  came  in  considerable  numbers,  and  in 
these  states  labor  is  almost  entirely  of  this  stock.  This  fact  ac- 
counts for  the  progressiveness  of  this  part  of  Brazil.  The  cattle 
industry  is  carried  on  by  the  Gauchos  much  as  in  Uruguay 
and  Argentina. 

Transportation 


The  combined  railroad  mileage  of  Latin  America  in  1913 
was  65,330  miles.  This  included  Central  and  South  America 
and  the  islands  of  Cuba  and  Haiti.  Argentina  leads  with 
20,300  miles;  Mexico  comes  next  with  over  16,000  miles;  Bra- 
zil ranks  third  with  nearly  14,000  miles;  Chile  has  over  5,000 
miles;  Cuba  has  2,000,  while  the  other  states 
have  less  than  2,000  miles  each.  Railroad 
construction  has  been  slow  especially  on  the 
west  coast,  because  of  the  difficulties  presented  by  the  Andes. 


Railroad  Mileage  in 
Latin  America 


248 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  scarcity  of  population  is  another  factor  delaying  railroad 
building,  for  only  as  population  creates  demands  can  roads 
be  constructed.  In  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Argentina  railroad 
building  has  been  comparatively  easy,  but  far  different  prob- 
lems are  faced  when  railroad  construction  is  attempted  in  Peru, 
Bolivia,  Ecuador,  or  Colombia. 

The  greatest  railroad  center  in  Latin  America  is  Buenos 
Ayres.  The  first  railroad  in  Argentina,  a short  line  running 
westward  from  the  capital,  was  opened  to  traffic  in  1857.  Since 
that  time  railroad  development  has  gone  steadily  forward, 
until  at  the  present  time  Argentina  ranks  tenth  among  the 
countries  of  the  world  in  the  length  of  her  lines.  The  railroads 
of  Argentina  may  be  divided  into  five  systems:  the  Central 
Argentina,  running  northwestward  to  Tucuman;  the  great 
Southern,  which  serves  the  southern  part  of 
the  province,  with  about  3,000  miles  of  line; 
the  Buenos  Ayres  Western,  with  about  1,500  miles  of  track; 
the  Central  Cordoba,  which  includes  the  lines  north  of  Tucu- 
man; and  the  Buenos  Ayres  and  Pacific,  which  forms  part  of 
the  transcontinental  system.  One  of  the  unfortunate  things 
about  the  railroads  of  South  America  is  the  different  gauges. 
There  are  three  gauges  in  Argentina,  namely,  the  broad,  the 
medium,  and  the  narrow,  which  condition  prevents  the  transfer 
of  rolling  stock  from  one  line  to  another.  British  capital  has 
largely  been  responsible  for  the  building  of  these  roads,  the 
amount  invested,  being  over  $1,000,000,000.  Every  year  rail- 
road construction  goes  forward,  and  in  1911  1,964  miles  of 
new  track  were  laid. 


Argentine  Railroads 


Years 

Length 

Capital 

Invested 

Passengers 

Freight 

Receipts 

Expenses 

Kilos 

Dollars  gold 

Number 

Metric  tons 

Dollars  gold 

Dollars  gold 

1866 

249 

5,379,898 

747,684 

71,571 

563,134 

438,961 

1870 

732 

18,835,703 

1,948,585 

274,501 

2,502,569 

1,356,252 

1880 

2,516 

62,964,486 

2,751,570 

772,717 

6,560,417 

3,072,185 

1890 

9,432 

321,102,691 

10,069,606 

5,420,782 

26,049,042 

17,585,406 

1900 

16,563 

531,398,720 

18,296,422 

12,659,831 

41,401,348 

23,732,754 

1905 

19,794 

627,230,616 

26,636,211 

22,409,995 

71,594,919 

39,396,094 

1909 

25,508 

898,913,000 

50,830,000 

31,955,000 

103,578,000 

62,272,000 

1912 

32,854 

1,120,210,000 

68,457,090 

33,640,206 

119,333,796 

75,680,837 

In  1914  the  length  of  railroads  in  Brazil  was  15,272  miles. 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


249 


Railroads  of  Brazil 
and  Uruguay 


These  railroads  were  originally  planned  to  bring  the  products 
of  the  interior  to  the  nearest  port,  which  resulted  in  the  build- 
ing of  five  systems.  Pernambuco  was  the  focus  of  one  system, 
Bahia  of  another,  Rio  de  Janeiro  of  another, 
SSo  Paulo  of  a fourth,  while  Rio  Grande  de 
Sul  in  the  extreme  south  was  the  terminus  of 
a fifth  system.  In  recent  years  the  government  has  seen  the 
necessity  of  connecting  these  various  systems,  part  of  which 
plan  has  already  been  carried  out.  Uruguay  has  1,540  miles 
of  road,  operated  by  five  companies.  The  roads  in  opera- 
tion are  the  Central  Uruguay,  the  Midland  Uruguay,  the 
Uruguay  East  Coast,  the  Norte  Railway,  and  the  Puerta  Sauce 
to  Minuano.  Montevideo  is  the  great  Uruguayan  railroad 
center. 

Over  2,000  miles  of  Chilean  railroad  are  owned  by  the  gov- 
ernment, while  private  companies  operate  about  as  much  more. 
The  government  railroad  plan  for  Chile  includes  the  building 
of  a line  reaching  from  north  to  south  through  the  great  central 
valley,  where  a large  proportion  of  the  population  is  to  be 
found.  Most  of  the  short  lines  from  the  coast  to  the  interior 
are  private  lines  serving  special  interests.  In  1910  the  tunnel 
through  the  Andes  was  opened.  Two  other  trans-Andean  rail- 
roads are  contemplated,  one  to  cross  the  Andes  some  300  miles 
north  of  Santiago,  and  the  other  some  400 
coast  countries  miles  to  the  south.  Peruvian  railroads  are 

to  a great  extent  owned  by  the  government. 
In  1915  there  were  less  than  2,000  miles  of  road  in  operation, 
though  there  were  under  construction  or  under  survey  some 
3,500  miles  additional.  The  most  important  is  the  Central 
Railroad,  which  runs  from  Callao  through  Lima  to  Oroya, 
with  connections  with  Cerro  de  Pasco  road,  which  has  its 
terminus  at  the  largest  copper  mine  in  the  wrorld.  Peruvian 
railroads  are  short,  and  railroad  construction  has  had  to  over- 
come tremendous  difficulties.  The  same  is  also  true  of  Bolivia, 
where  less  than  1,000  miles  are  in  operation.  The  chief  Bolivian 
road  is  the  line  which  runs  from  Antofagasta,  Chile,  to  Oruro, 
where  it  connects  with  the  Bolivia  Railroad,  which  in  turn 
connects  with  a road  to  the  capital,  La  Paz.  Ecuador  has  but 


250 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


375  miles  of  railroad,  the  greater  part  of  this  mileage  being 
represented  by  the  Guayaquil  and  Quito  line. 

Railroad  development  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela  has  hardly 
begun.  In  Colombia  the  roads  are  mostly  short  lines  running 
inland  from  coast  ports,  or  connect  inland  places  with  the 
Magdalena  River.  The  road  connecting  Bo- 
^dVenezueu°l0mbia  Sota  with  the  Magdalena  is  105  miles  long 
and  was  completed  in  1906.  Venezuela  has  a 
railroad  mileage  of  542  miles  (1913).  These  roads  resemble 
those  of  Colombia,  being  short  lines  running  in  from  ports. 
Around  the  capital  there  has  been  more  development,  and 
several  of  these  short  lines  have  connected  their  systems. 

Mexico  ranks  next  to  Argentina  in  railroad  development. 
In  1913  there  were  some  16,000  miles  of  track.  The  govern- 
ment of  Mexico  has  given  encouragement  to  railroad  construc- 
tion, and  has  acquired  large  holdings  of  shares  in  the  various 
roads.  The  roads  operated  under  the  name  the  “National 
Railroads  of  Mexico”  have  a combined  mileage  of  over  8,600 
miles.  Among  the  roads  of  this  corporation  are  the  Mexican 
Central  and  the  National  Railroad  of  Mex- 
ico*  The  Mexican  Central  alone  operates 
over  3,500  miles  of  track.  There  are  several 
independent  lines,  among  them  being  the  Southern  Pacific  of 
Mexico,  with  1,295  miles  of  track;  the  United  Railways  of 
Yucatan,  with  503  miles,  and  the  Mexican  Northwestern. 
Since  1910  there  has  been  but  little  railroad  activity  in  Mexico. 
In  the  Central  American  states  there  are  about  1,400  miles  of 
track  in  operation.  Guatemala  leads  with  487  miles,  and 
Costa  Rica  comes  second  with  430  miles.  Nicaragua  and 
Honduras  have  about  170  miles  each,  while  Salvador  has  about 
100  miles.  Panama  has  about  200  miles,  the  railroad  across 
the  Isthmus  being  the  most  important.  It  is  but  48  miles  in 
length.  Surveys  have  been  made  for  other  important  lines, 
one  the  Panama-David  line,  which  is  to  be  361  miles  in  length. 

The  Republic  of  Haiti  has  less  than  100  miles  of  road,  while 
in  the  Dominican  republic  there  are  about  150  miles,  besides 
private  lines  on  the  large  estates  with  a mileage  of  about  225 
miles.  Cuba  has  a railroad  mileage  of  over  2,200  miles. 


ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


251 


Besides  the  railroads  the  four  great  river  systems  of  South 
America  furnish  many  thousands  of  miles  of  navigable  water- 
ways. In  Colombia  the  Magdalena  furnishes  the  chief  means 
of  transportation.  The  river  is  navigable  for  560  miles  from 
its  mouth  and  there  are  other  stretches  of  navigable  waterways 
furnished  by  the  larger  tributaries.  Steamship  lines  ply  these 
waters,  and  although  the  government  has  done  little  to  im- 
prove the  river,  yet  the  traffic  is  most  profitable,  and  river 
dues  yield  as  much  as  $150,000  a year.  Like  Colombia,  Vene- 
„ zuela  is  fortunate  in  having  a great  river  to 

furnish  transportation  to  the  interior  of  the 
country.  The  Orinoco  is  navigable  for  large  steamships  to 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  a town  situated  375  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  main  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  are  also  navigable.  The 
Amazon  and  its  tributaries  furnish  27,000  miles  of  navigable 
waters.  Large  ocean-going  ships  can  go  up  the  river  1,000 
miles  to  Manaos,  while  a United  States  gunboat  steamed  up 
the  river  2,400  miles  to  the  city  of  Iquitos,  in  eastern  Peru. 
Small  steamers  can  go  up  the  river  to  within  350  miles  of  Lima, 
in  Peru.  The  waterways  of  Peru,  composed  of  the  branches  of 
the  Amazon,  have  been  estimated  at  a total  length  of  20,000 
miles,  while  in  Bolivia  both  the  headwaters  of  the  La  Plata 
system,  including  the  Parana,  the  Uruguay,  and  the  Paraguay 
Rivers,  offer  immense  opportunities  for  internal  navigation. 
Sea  vessels  can  go  up  to  1,200  miles  above  Buenos  Ayres,  while 
smaller  craft  can  ascend  2,350  miles  into  the  interior.  Uruguay 
has  700  miles  of  internal  waterways,  largely  furnished  by  the 
La  Plata  and  the  Uruguay  rivers.  There  are  ten  ports  of  the 
Uruguay  open  to  interoceanic  trade.  When  properly  developed 
the  South  American  rivers  will  afford  boundless  opportunities 
for  communication  with  the  rich  interior  of  the  continent. 

READING  REFERENCES 

Perhaps  the  most  available  sources  of  information  concerning  the 
present  economic  situation  in  Latin  America  are  the  General  Descriptive 
Pamphlets  of  the  Pan-American  Union.  The  pamphlet  for  each  republic 
gives  accounts  of  Products  and  Industries,  Railways  and  Interior  Water- 
ways, etc. 

Much  information  will  also  be  found  scattered  through  The  Republics 


252 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


of  South  and  Central  America,  by  C.  Reginald  Enock.  In  this  book  there 
is  no  one  chapter  devoted  to  the  economic  conditions,  but  each  country 
is  discussed  separately. 

South  of  Panama,  by  E.  H.  Ross,  Chapter  II,  discusses  the  labor  ques- 
tion in  Latin  America. 

A chapter  on  “Economic  Problems”  will  also  be  found  in  Latin  America, 
by  F.  Garcia  Calderon. 

An  instructive  paper  on  “Some  Economic  Facts  and  Conclusions  about 
South  America,”  by  S.  0.  Martin,  may  be  found  in  Latin  America  (1913), 
edited  by  George  H.  Blakeslee  ( Clark  University  Addresses). 

Bryce,  in  his  South  America,  makes  some  instructive  comments  on  the 
economic  conditions  in  Latin  America. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  AND  COMMERCE 


One  might  naturally  suppose  that  the  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Latin  America  would  be  intimate  and  close. 
All  the  republics  belong  to  the  New  World  and  are  detached 
from  European  politics:  they  all  have  the  same  form  of  govern- 
ment; all  won  their  independence  from  European  domination. 
The  points  of  contrast,  however,  are  much  more  numerous 
than  the  points  in  common.  They  differ  in 
So-s^Tn^edca  race>  religion,  language,  and  ideals.  The 
Latin  American  has  had  a different  history, 
as  well  as  different  climatic  and  physical  surroundings.  Mr. 
Bryce  says,  “The  Teutonic  Americans  and  the  Spanish  Amer- 
icans have  nothing  in  common  except  two  names,  the  name 
America  and  the  name  republican.”  While  there  seems  to  be 
little  sympathy  between  the  two  Americas,  yet  the  fact  of 
juxtaposition  has  produced  contact,  and  it  is  the  purpose  of 
this  chapter  to  examine  these  occasions  of  contact.  Let  us 
first,  however,  pass  in  review  Latin  American  relations  with 
European  states. 

Since  the  wars  for  independence  the  relation  of  the  Latin- 
American  republics  with  the  mother  countries  has  not  been 
intimate.  The  Creoles,  who  were  largely  at  the  head  of  the 
revolutionary  movements,  hated  the  Spanish  government,  and 
this  hatred  was  accentuated  by  the  long 
duration  of  the  struggle.  Then  Spain  also 
was  distracted  for  many  years  after  the  wars, 
and  there  was  little  to  induce  the  Latin  Americans  to  establish 
intimate  relations  with  her.  One  will  find  few  instances  of  any 
manifestation  of  interest  in  Spanish  history  in  Latin  America. 
Mr.  Bryce  points  out  the  almost  entire  absence  of  any  monu- 
ments to  any  of  the  great  Spanish  conquerors,  such  as  Cortes 
or  Pizarro.  There  has  also  been  little  interest  manifested  in 

253 


Latin  American 
Relations  with  Spain 


254 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Relations  with  Italy 


Spanish  art  or  literature.  Until  recent  years  there  were  very 
few  direct  relations  between  Italy  and  Latin 
America.  Although  Italians  compose  a third 
of  the  population  of  Argentina,  and  are  a considerable  factor 
in  the  populations  of  Uruguay  and  Brazil,  there  is  very  little 
trade  between  Italian  and  South  American  ports,  and  practi- 
cally no  mutual  political  or  intellectual  influence. 

For  a number  of  years  before  the  present  European  war, 
German  relations  with  Latin  America  had  been  growing  with 
considerable  rapidity.  Of  all  the  people  of  northern  Europe 
the  Germans  have  come  out  to  South  America  in  the  greatest 
numbers.  These  German  immigrants  have  formed  large  com- 
munities in  southern  Brazil,  and  have  had  influence  also  in 
Chile.  In  Chile  they  direct  the  education,  and  the  army  has 
been  organized  on  the  German  model.  If  it  had  not  been  for 
the  Monroe  Doctrine,  undoubtedly  Germany 
would  have  had  large  colonial  interest  in 
South  America.  Germany  has  for  a number 
of  years  condemned  the  Monroe  Doctrine  for  the  very  evident 
reason  that  it  stood  in  the  way  of  her  ambitions.  The  Ger- 
mans have  continued  to  use  the  German  language  both  in 
Brazil  and  Chile,  and  since  Brazil  has  broken  off  diplomatic 
relations  with  Germany,  the  German  colonists  in  the  southern 
states  have  threatened  revolt.  The  Germans  have  not  invested 
largely  in  railroad  construction,  as  have  the  British,  but  they 
have  established  steamship  lines  connecting  German  with 
Latin-American  ports,  and  a great  part  of  the  commerce  of 
several  of  the  republics  was  in  their  hands.  The  Germans  have 
taken  considerable  pains  to  learn  the  language  of  the  people 
and  to  understand  the  people  themselves.  Aside,  however, 
from  the  fact  that  the  German  army  has  served  as  the  model 
for  South  American  ministers  to  follow,  Latin  America  has 
been  little  influenced  by  Germany.  Germany  has  undoubtedly 
overestimated  her  influence  in  Latin  America,  as  the  conduct 
of  her  officials  has  clearly  indicated. 

British  influence  in  Latin  America  has  been  largely  commer- 
cial and  economic.  The  English  are  by  far  the  heaviest  inves- 
tors in  South  American  railroads  and  other  securities,  while 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


256 


Great  Britain  and 
Latin  America 


many  Englishmen  own  ranches  and  farms,  especially  in  Ar- 
gentina. Most  Englishmen  in  Latin  America  are  the  represen- 
tatives of  wealthy  firms  or  corporations  and  they  are  therefore 
men  of  considerable  education  and  have  a 
great  deal  of  money  which  they  dispense 
with  seeming  liberality.  Railroad  builders 
are  considered  great  benefactors  in  South  America,  and  the 
position  of  the  English  has  been  helped  by  that  fact.  As  far, 
however,  as  affecting  the  ideals  and  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
people,  the  English,  like  the  Germans,  have  little  influence. 
The  Latin  Americans  do  not  seem  to  consider  the  English  in- 
terests in  their  countries  as  constituting  a peril.  They  are 
willing  to  receive  English  help  in  developing  their  resources, 
but  with  English  ways  and  ideals  they  have  little  in  common. 

Of  all  European  nations  France  has  by  far  the  largest  in- 
fluence upon  Latin  America.  Mr.  Bryce  traces  this  to  sev- 
eral causes.  First,  there  was  the  influence  of  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  literature  produced  by  France,  both  during 
and  after  that  epoch.  Severed  from  Spain  by  the  revolutions, 
the  Latin  Americans  turned  to  France.  The  French  language 
was  already  more  familiar  to  them  than  any  other  foreign 
language,  and  during  the  colonial  days  French 
uta  m commerce  supplied  the  colonists  with  most  of 

their  luxuries.  French  literature  had  a spe- 
cial attraction  for  the  Latin  Americans  in  that  they  both  have 
a fondness  for  graceful,  pointed,  and  rhetorical  expression.  “In 
short,  they  have  an  intellectual  affinity  for  France,  for  the 
brightness  of  her  ideas,  the  gaiety  of  her  spirit,  the  finish  of  her 
literary  methods,  the  quality  of  her  sentiment.”  It  is  to  Paris 
that  wealthy  South  Americans,  whether  from  Brazil,  Argen- 
tina, or  Venezuela,  flock  for  their  amusement  or  their  education. 
French  ideals  and  tastes  dominate  the  Latin-American  world  of 
ideas.  French  commerce  is  likewise  considerable,  though  less  in 
volume  than  that  of  Great  Britain,  Germany,  or  the  United 
States. 

The  political  relation  of  the  United  States  to  Latin  America 
centers  about  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  Our  dealings  with  Mexico 
have  been  more  frequent  than  with  other  countries,  and  they 


256 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


have  not  been  such  as  to  cause  them  to  desire  our  approach. 
The  Mexican  War,  begun  and  carried  through  for  the  purpose 
of  territorial  aggrandizement  on  the  part  of  the  United  States, 
will  not  soon  be  forgotten  or  forgiven  by  the  Mexican  people. 
Relations  of  the  The  Gadsden  purchase  (1853)  resulted  in  the 
united  states  with  acquiring  of  a large  strip  of  territory  border- 
ing on  New  Mexico,  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing easier  the  construction  of  a transcontinental  railway,  and 
although  not  exactly  a voluntary  cession,  yet  it  left  no  hard 
feeling.  Since  that  time  until  1911  the  relation  of  the  United 
States  with  Mexico  has  been  cordial.  At  the  close  of  the  Amer- 
ican Civil  War  the  United  States  rendered  a great  service  to 
the  Mexican  republic  in  bringing  about  the  withdrawal  of 
French  troops  and  freeing  them  from  the  danger  of  foreign 
domination.  Under  the  rule  of  Diaz  American  investments  in 
Mexico  were  encouraged  and  in  the  development  of  the  mineral 
resources  and  railroad  extension  of  the  country  American  cap- 
ital played  the  chief  part. 

With  the  overthrow  of  President  Diaz  in  1911,  and  with  the 
revolutions  which  followed,  the  $1,000,000,000  of  American  in- 
vestments in  Mexico  were  endangered  and  much  pressure  was 
brought  to  bear  upon  President  Taft  to  intervene.  Mr.  Taft 
refrained  from  taking  that  extreme  step,  but  the  army  of  the 
United  States  was  sent  to  the  border  to  insure  neutrality.  In 
the  last  days  of  President  Taft’s  administration  President 
Madero  was  assassinated  by  the  agents  of  General  Huerta, 
after  which  Huerta  assumed  the  presidency.  President  Wilson, 
who  now  came  into  office,  refused  to  recognize  Huerta,  although 
he  had  already  been  recognized  by  European  states.  Because 
of  the  irritation  felt  by  the  Huerta  party  at  the  stand  of  Pres- 
ident Wilson  American  sailors  were  arrested  at  Tampico,  in 
April,  1914,  by  the  soldiers  of  the  Mexican  president.  Although 
Huerta  disowned  this  act,  the  American  ad- 
miral demanded  a further  satisfaction  in  the 
salute  of  the  American  flag  by  Mexican  guns. 
This  was  refused.  Meanwhile  many  people  in  the  United 
States  were  beginning  to  fret  and  chafe  under  the  policy  of 
“watchful  waiting”  maintained  by  President  Wilson,  and  de- 


American  Intervention 
in  Mexico  in  1914 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


257 


mands  for  intervention  became  loud.  At  last  President  Wilson 
and  Congress  decided  to  send  troops  to  Vera  Cruz.  Accord- 
ingly, a force  was  landed  which  resulted  in  the  killing  of  several 
Americans  and  a more  considerable  number  of  Mexicans.  At 
this  juncture  mediation  was  proposed  by  the  three  great  powers 
of  South  America,  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  Chile.  This  was 
accepted  by  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  and  representatives 
of  the  five  republics  met  at  Niagara  Falls  in  Canada  and  de- 
cided on  an  arrangement  by  which  Huerta  was  to  resign  and 
the  United  States  was  then  to  withdraw  her  troops.  In  1915 
the  United  States  recognized  President  Carranza  as  the  pres- 
ident of  Mexico.  In  1916,  Pancho  Villa,  a bold  leader  of  a 
faction  in  Mexico,  crossed  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United 
States,  and  a number  of  American  citizens  were  shot,  whereupon 
the  government  of  the  United  States  decided  to  send  a division 
of  troops  to  the  border,  under  General  Pershing,  to  punish  Villa. 
Although  this  was  not  accomplished,  the  raids  ceased.  American 
troops  are  still  on  the  border,  but  there  have  been  no  serious 
outbreaks  to  disturb  the  relations  of  the  two  republics  further. 

The  early  relations  of  the  United  States  to  the  Central 
American  states  have  been  largely  due  to  the  question  of  an 
interoceanic  canal.  When  a dispute  arose  between  Great 
Britain  and  Nicaragua  over  the  possession  of  the  Mosquito 
coast,  the  United  States  supported  the  claims  of  Nicaragua. 
After  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  the  frequency  of  travel 
united  states  across  the  isthmus  became  much  greater,  and 

Relations  with  Central  agitation  both  for  a railroad  and  a canal 
across  the  isthmus  was  begun.  This  resulted 
in  the  making  of  the  first  accurate  surveys  of  the  isthmus  and 
the  building  of  the  Panama  Railroad.  This  made  necessary 
considerable  negotiations  with  Nicaragua,  but  in  1901  the 
Nicaragua  route  was  definitely  abandoned  and  the  Panama 
route  chosen.  After  this,  canal  negotiations  were  carried  on 
with  Colombia,  and  later  with  the  new  republic  of  Panama, 
though  a treaty  was  signed  with  Nicaragua  in  1916  giving  the 
United  States  an  exclusive  right  to  the  Nicaragua  route. 

On  the  decision  of  the  United  States  to  adopt  the  Panama 
route  for  an  interoceanic  canal,  negotiations  were  at  once 


258 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  Panama  Canal 
Negotiations 


begun  with  Colombia  which  resulted  in  what  is  known  as  the 
Hay-Herran  treaty.  At  that  time  Colombia  was  tom  by  revo- 
lutionary movements  which  had  begun  in  1899.  The  treaty 
provided  for  the  transfer  to  the  United  States  on  the  part  of 
Colombia  of  the  rights  of  the  French  company  which  had  be- 
come bankrupt  in  1889.  It  provided  also  for  the  cession  of  a 
right  of  way  for  a canal,  and  a strip  of  territory  five  miles 
broad  on  each  side  of  the  canal,  as  well  as 
the  two  ports  of  Colon  and  Panama.  In 
return  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay 
$10,000,000  down  and  after  ten  years  an  annual  rental  of 
$250,000.  Besides,  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay  for  the 
number  of  shares  held  by  Colombia  in  the  French  Company. 
This  treaty  was  properly  signed  by  the  agents  of  both  govern- 
ments, but  the  Colombian  Congress  refused  to  ratify  on  the 
ground  that  the  treaty  had  been  made  while  Colombia  was  in 
a state  of  war.  The  real  reason,  however,  seems  to  have  been 
the  desire  of  the  Colombian  Congress  to  receive  a larger  money 
payment. 

Following  the  adjournment  of  the  Colombian  Congress  a 
revolution  broke  out  in  Panama.  This  revolution  was  quite 
evidently  fomented  by  persons  interested  in  building  the  canal. 
American  warships  prevented  Colombia  from  suppressing  the 
revolt,  and  four  days  after  the  revolution  began  the  United 
States  recognized  the  independence  of  the 
new  republic.  The  United  States  at  once 
made  an  agreement  with  the  new  republic 
even  more  satisfactory  than  the  previous  unratified  agreement 
with  Colombia.  Not  only  was  a strip  of  land  five  miles  broad 
on  each  side  of  the  canal  secured,  but  the  right  to  fortify  the 
canal  was  given,  as  well  as  additional  naval  stations  within  the 
republic.  In  return  the  United  States  agreed  to  pay  Panama 
$10,000,000  down,  and  after  nine  years  $250,000  each  year. 
The  constitution  of  Panama  contains  this  clause:  “The  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  of  America  may 
RepubUc  o^Panama6  intervene  anywhere  in  the  Republic  of  Pan- 
ama for  the  establishment  of  constitutional 
peace  and  order  if  this  should  be  disturbed,  provided  that  by 


The  Revolution  in 
Panama 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


259 


virtue  of  public  treaty  said  nation  should  assume  or  have 
assumed  to  guarantee  the  independence  and  sovereignty  of 
this  republic.”  By  this  remarkable  treaty  agreement  and  by 
the  constitutional  grant  of  Panama  the  United  States  has 
practically  gained  a protectorate  over  Panama  and  a colony 
in  the  Canal  Zone. 

With  the  establishment  of  United  States  interests  in  Central 
America  through  her  ownership  of  the  Panama  Canal  Zone, 
she  has  taken  a much  greater  part  in  Central  American  affairs. 
The  United  States  has  felt  the  necessity  of  establishing  stable 
governments  in  the  republics  near  the  canal,  and  for  that  reason 
has  been  almost  constantly  occupied  since  1906  either  mediat- 
united  states  ing  between  the  republics  or  directly  inter- 
intervention in  vening  in  their  internal  affairs.  In  1906 

central  America  Presidents  Roosevelt  and  Diaz  mediated  be- 
tween Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  Honduras;  in  1907  President 
Roosevelt  arranged  a peace  conference  in  Washington  of  the 
five  republics,  which  resulted  in  the  signing  of  a compulsory 
arbitration  agreement.  Disturbed  conditions  continued  in 
Nicaragua,  and  in  1909,  after  the  overthrow  of  Zelaya,  the 
United  States  negotiated  a treaty  with  the  Nicaraguan  gov- 
ernment giving  the  United  States  the  right  of  virtually  control- 
ling the  finances  of  the  country.  Again  in  1912  United  States 
troops  were  landed  in  Nicaragua,  at  the  request  of  the  Nicara- 
gua government,  to  quell  a revolution.  In  1913  a revolution 
occurred  in  Honduras  in  which  the  United  States  again  inter- 
vened and  a treaty,  similar  to  that  made  with  Nicaragua,  was 
negotiated,  but  failed  of  ratification. 

The  United  States’s  dealing  with  Cuba,  Haiti,  and  Porto 
Rico  has  important  bearing  upon  Latin-American  sentiment 
toward  North  Americans.  Throughout  the  whole  nineteenth 
century  Cuba  was  the  object  of  particular  interest  to  the  United 
States.  Jefferson  desired  it  and  John  Quincy  Adams  believed 
it  would  eventually  become  a part  of  the  American  Union. 
Clay  and  Webster  were  fearful  lest  it  become  the  possession  of 
some  other  nation  than  Spain  and  after  the  agitation  for  the 
increase  of  slave  territory  the  South  became  more  insistent  for 
its  annexation.  Cuban  annexation  was  attempted  on  various 


260 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


The  United  States 
and  Cuba 


occasions.  The  Civil  War,  however,  put  a stop  to  these  efforts 
and  American  interest  in  the  island  became 
largely  commercial.  Soon  after  the  Civil 
War  a revolution  broke  out  in  Cuba  (1868- 
1878),  characterized  by  the  destruction  of  life  and  property. 
President  Grant  threatened  intervention,  but  peace  was  finally 
restored  after  Spain  had  promised  various  reforms.  These 
promises  were  not  carried  out,  however,  and  Spain  continued 
her  old  policy  of  exploitation  and  misrule.  In  1895  another 
revolution  was  begun  by  the  Cubans,  due  to  the  same  old 
causes.  The  Spanish-born  enjoyed  all  the  privileges,  held  the 
offices,  and  reaped  the  profits,  while  race  discrimination  and 
favoritism  were  everywhere  practiced.  Spain  tried  in  vain  to 
put  an  end  to  the  revolution  and  sent  over  some  200,000  troops. 
But  the  war  dragged  on  without  any  prospect  of  subduing 
the  island. 

Meanwhile  the  sympathies  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
for  the  Cubans  was  aroused  by  the  policy  of  General  Weyler 
in  gathering  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  into  concentration 
camps,  where  they  were  subjected  to  intense  suffering.  As  a 
result  American  filibustering  expeditions  became  numerous  and 
supplies  were  sent  to  the  Cuban  rebels.  The  American  Con- 
gress discussed  conditions  in  Cuba  and  many  of  the  members 
were  strongly  in  favor  of  intervention.  The  matter  was  brought 
to  a crisis  on  February  15,  1898,  by  the  destruction  of  the 
battleship  Maine  in  the  harbor  of  Habana.  The  American 
press  at  «once  accused  the  Spanish  authorities  of  sinking  the 
ship.  Negotiations  continued  until  April  21, 
CubaIndePendenCe  °f  when  war  was  declared  between  Spain  and 
the  United  States.  The  war  continued  until 
August,  1898.  Every  engagement,  both  naval  and  military, 
was  in  favor  of  the  United  States.  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  were 
captured  as  well  as  the  Philippines,  and  two  Spanish  fleets 
were  destroyed.  At  the  opening  of  the  war  Congress  declared 
that  its  object  was  to  free  Cuba  from  Spain  and  not  to  annex 
the  island.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  however,  the  American 
army  remained  in  Cuba  to  clean  up  the  island.  The  Cubans 
were  allowed  to  hold  a constitutional  convention,  and  a con- 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


261 


stitution,  almost  an  exact  copy  of  that  of  the  United  States, 
was  the  result.  Before  a government  was  established  the 
American  Congress,  however,  passed  what  was  known  as  the 
Platt  amendment,  limiting  the  independence  of  Cuba.  It 
provided,  first,  that  Cuba  must  make  no  treaty  with  a foreign 
power  giving  it  lodgment  in  the  island  or  impairing  its  own 
independence;  second,  certain  regulations  concerning  its  public 
debt  were  laid  down;  and  third,  the  United  States  was  given 
the  right  to  intervene  to  preserve  Cuban  independence  and  to 
assure  good  government.  The  Cuban  republic  began  its  career 
in  1902  under  President  Palma.  On  his  second  election,  in 
1906,  there  was  a revolution.  The  United  States  intervened 
and  remained  in  the  island  until  peace  was  restored  under 
President  Gomez,  in  1909. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  which  closed  the  Spanish-American 
Porto  Rico  Since  the  war>  Porto  Rico  became  the  property  of  the 
Spanish-American  United  States.  It  has  since  been  governed 
by  Congress,  though  a considerable  degree  of 
self-government  has  been  established  in  the  island. 

Since  it  obtained  its  independence  in  1821  the  relations  of 
the  United  States  with  the  island  of  Haiti  have  not  been  such 
as  to  arouse  suspicion  on  the  part  of  the  Latin-American  states 
until  recently.  It  is  true  that  President  Grant  greatly  desired 
the  annexation  of  Haiti,  and  a treaty  was  drawn  up  with  that 
end  in  view,  but  the  American  Senate  refused  its  ratification. 

In  recent  years,  however,  our  relations  with 
that  island  have  been  the  occasion  of  Latin- 
American  distrust.  In  1904  the  European 
creditors  of  the  Republic  of  Santo  Domingo  were  about  to  take 
steps  to  forcibly  intervene,  as  they  had  threatened  in  1902  in 
Venezuela.  To  avoid  this,  President  Roosevelt  took  steps  to 
bring  about  an  agreement  between  Santo  Domingo  and  her 
creditors.  American  officials  were  appointed  to  take  charge 
of  the  customhouse  in  order  to  insure  that  payments  be  made 
to  the  creditors.  In  his  message  of  December  6,  1904,  President 
Roosevelt  laid  down  the  principle  that  in  case  of  wrongdoing  or 
incompetent  government  on  the  part  of  an  American  state  the 
United  States  would  be  compelled  to  exercise  an  international 


The  United  States 
and  Santo  Domingo 


262 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


police  power.  This  seems  to  have  reduced  Santo  Domingo  to 
the  position  of  a disguised  protectorate,  and  by  Latin  Amer- 
icans this  action  of  the  United  States  has  been  regarded  with 
suspicion. 

The  relation  of  the  United  States  with  the  South  American 
states  since  their  independence  has  been  much  less  important 
than  that  with  Mexico,  the  Central  American  states,  or  the 
islands.  With  four  of  the  republics,  Peru,  Ecuador,  Bolivia, 
and  Uruguay,  the  United  States  has  had  practically  no  political 
dealings.  In  1831  a slight  difficulty  with  Argentina  over  the 
seizure  of  American  fishing  vessels  resulted  in  the  removal,  by 
an  American  warship,  of  the  Argentina  colony  on  the  Falkland 
Islands.  This  loss  was  followed,  two  years  later,  by  the  seizure 
of  the  islands  by  Great  Britain.  Argentina  has  claimed  that 
her  loss  of  these  islands  was  due  to  the  United  States.  Some 
difficulty  with  Paraguay  over  that  republic’s  interference  with 
the  navigation  of  the  Paraguay  River  was  settled  .in  1850  by 
„ ^ the  visit  of  an  armed  expedition.  In  1893 

Between  the  United  American  warships  m the  harbor  of  Rio  de 
states  and  the  South  janeiro  almost  came  into  conflict  with  Brazil- 

American  Republics  . 

ian  warships,  but  as  the  Brazilian  fleet  was 
in  the  hands  of  rebel  forces  and  was  later  overcome  there  was 
no  break  in  the  harmony  between  the  two  governments.  With 
Chile  American  relations  have  not  been  so  harmonious.  Sec- 
retary Blaine,  in  1881,  attempted  to  mediate  between  Chile 
and  Peru,  with  the  result  that  Chile  was  angered.  Ten  years 
later,  in  the  Chilean  civil  war,  the  American  minister  unwisely 
took  the  side  of  President  Balmaceda,  which  greatly  offended 
the  victorious  Congress.  While  the  feeling  against  the  United 
States  was  still  strong  American  sailors  were  attacked  by  a 
Chilean  mob  in  Valparaiso,  which  almost  led  the  two  nations 
into  war.  The  United  States  sent  an  ultimatum,  and  Chile 
submitted.  These  incidents  have  continued  to  rankle,  and  the 
relations  between  Chile  and  the  United  States  have  not  been 
as  cordial  as  with  the  other  large  South  American  states.  The 
relations  between  the  United  States  and  Colombia  have  al- 
ready been  outlined  above,  in  discussing  the  Panama  Canal 
negotiations.  Relations  with  Venezuela  have  been  chiefly 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


263 


those  which  have  grown  out  of  the  boundary  dispute  with 
Great  Britain  in  1895  and  the  dispute  with  Germany,  Italy, 
and  Great  Britain,  in  1902-1903,  over  their  claims  on  Venezuela. 


How  the  People  of 
the  United  States 
Think  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine 


The  Monroe  Doctrine 

The  attitude  of  the  Latin-American  states  toward  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine  is  a matter  little  understood  by  the  people  of  the 
United  States.  From  the  date  of  its  appearance  in  1823  down 
to  the  present  time  the  doctrine  has  met  with  practically  uni- 
versal approval  by  the  people  of  the  United  States,  but  they 
have  not  taken  the  trouble  to  find  out  how  it 
has  been  received  by  the  people  of  the  South 
or  Central  American  states.  The  doctrine 
proclaims:  (1)  that  the  American  continents 
are  not  subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any  European 
powers,  and  (2)  that  any  interference  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
trolling or  oppressing  the  independent  governments  of  America 
by  European  powers  would  be  considered  as  a manifestation  of 
an  unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United  States.  The 
people  of  the  United  States  have  been  proud  of  this  doctrine, 
for  they  have  looked  upon  it  as  a means  by  which  they  have 
guarded  liberty.  It  means  to  the  average  American  that  the 
United  States  has  voluntarily  taken  upon  herself  the  protection 
of  democracy  in  the  New  World.  Nor  has  the  average  Amer- 
ican looked  upon  the  doctrine  as  a means  of  territorial  aggran- 
dizement. To  the  Latin  American,  however,  it  has  a far  different 
meaning. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  now  stands  for  much  that  was  not 
imagined  at  the  time  of  its  announcement.  Down  to  the 
The  Monroe  Doctrine  Mexican  War  it  was  not  an  offense  to  the 
Transformed  into  an  Latin- American  people;  they  regarded  it  as  a 

offensive  Doctrine  means  for  their  protection,  and  were  seem- 
ingly grateful  for  it.  In  those  early  years  it  was  purely  a de- 
fensive measure,  but  since  those  days  it  has  undergone  a great 
transformation.  In  recent  years  the  United  States  has  lost 
ground  with  the  Latin-American  peoples.  This  is  especially 
true  since  the  Venezuelan  controversy  and  the  ensuing  proc- 
lamation of  President  Cleveland  and  Secretary  Olney. 


264 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


For  many  years  there  had  been  a dispute  between  Great 
Britain  and  Venezuela  over  the  boundary  of  British  Guiana. 
Venezuela  had  attempted  on  a number  of  occasions  to  draw 
the  United  States  into  the  controversy,  but  up  to  1895  she 
had  not  been  successful.  By  this  time  the  question  had  be- 
come more  acute,  due  to  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  disputed 
region.  For  this  reason  President  Cleveland  decided  to  handle 
the  question,  and  declared  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  United 
The  Venezuelan  States,  under  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  to  insist 
scundary  Dispute  upon  a judiciai  settlement.  On  June  20, 

and  Olney’s  Inter-  , . ’ 

pretation  of  the  1895,  the  American  secretary  of  state,  Mr. 
Monroe  Doctrine  Olney,  sent  a dispatch  to  Great  Britain  set- 
ting forth  President  Cleveland’s  views.  The  message  stated 
that  “Any  permanent  union  between  a European  and  an  Amer- 
ican state”  is  unnatural  and  inexpedient,  and  further  on  an- 
nounced that  “to-day  the  United  States  is  practically  sovereign 
on  this  continent,  and  its  fiat  is  law  upon  the  subjects  to  which 
it  confines  its  interposition.”  These  declarations  were  aston- 
ishing both  to  Great  Britain  and  the  South  American  states, 
and  were  at  once  disputed  by  Great  Britain.  President  Cleve- 
land, however,  insisted  that  Great  Britain  arbitrate,  even 
threatening  war.  Great  Britain  finally  consented  to  arbitrate 
and  the  incident  was  closed. 

The  outcome  of  this  controversy  was  a triumph  for  the  United 
States, *and  since  that  time  “they  have  seldom  let  slip  a chance  to 
reiterate  their  belief  in  it”  (the  Monroe  Doctrine).  This  incident 
served  also  to  bring  the  Monroe  Doctrine  much  more  prominently 
to  the  notice  of  the  outside  world.  Again,  in  1902,  President 
Roosevelt  asserted  the  principle  of  the  doctrine  in  compelling 
Germany  to  arbitrate  in  another  dispute  with  Venezuela.  In- 
tervention in  Latin-American  affairs  has  be- 

American^terrention  come  more  Sequent.  Through  American 
intervention  Panama  was  set  apart  from 
Colombia  in  1903;  Santo  Domingo,  as  well  as  Guatemala  and 
Honduras,  have  been  taken  under  financial  tutelage,  while  in 
1906  the  Cuban  revolution  was  suppressed  by  American  arms. 
The  recent  revolution  in  Mexico  resulted  in  the  invasion  of 
Mexican  territory  by  American  troops,  and  much  suspicion 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


265 


and  distrust  was  aroused,  not  only  in  Mexico,  but  among  the 
other  Latin-American  states.  Many  American  newspapers 
urged  the  permanent  occupation  of  Mexico,  and  American 
capitalists,  with  investments  in  Mexico,  likewise  advocated 
the  pacification  of  the  country  for  their  benefit. 

A Latin  American  recently  began  a discussion  of  what  he 
termed  “the  North  American  peril”  with  these  words:  “To 
save  themselves  from  Yankee  imperialism  the  American  de- 
mocracies would  almost  accept  a German  alliance  or  the  aid  of 
Japanese  arms;  everywhere  the  Americans  of  the  North  are 
feared.”  This  brilliant  writer  sees  in  the  United  States  two 
parties  in  respect  to  Latin  America,  one  represented  by  Mr. 
Root,  who  in  the  Pan-American  Conference  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  1906  said:  “We  do  not  wish  to  win  victories,  we  desire  no 
territory  but  our  own,  nor  a sovereignty  more  extensive  than 
that  which  we  desire  to  retain  over  ourselves.  We  consider 
that  the  independence  and  the  equal  rights  of  the  smallest 
and  weakest  members  of  the  family  of  nations  deserves  as 
How  Latin  Americans  much  respect  as  those  of  the  great  empires.” 
view  the  Monroe  The  other  party  is  represented  by  the  im- 
perialistic declaration  of  Mr.  Olney  in  1895: 
“To-day  the  United  States  is  practically  sovereign  on  this 
continent,  and  its  fiat  is  law  upon  the  subjects  to  which  it 
confines  its  interposition.”  The  people  of  Chile,  Argentina, 
Brazil,  and  Peru  resent  the  idea  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  They 
realize  that  there  is  slight  danger  of  any  European  tyrant 
enslaving  them,  and  they  refuse  to  receive  the  protection  of 
the  United  States  where  no  protection  is  needed  or  wanted. 
The  great  newspapers  of  Latin  America  have  almost  unan- 
imously in  recent  years  opposed  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  One 
of  the  leading  papers  of  Peru  had  this  to  say  in  regard  to  the 
doctrine:  “Respect  for  the  political  sovereignty  and  the  com- 
mercial independence  of  Latin  America,  which  the  government 
of  the  United  States  sets  forth  so  freely  on  every  occasion,  is 
not  able  to  counteract  nor  to  lessen  the  eloquence  of  deeds, 
and  these  are  the  deeds:  tutelage  over  Cuba;  abduction  of 
Panama;  the  embargo  on  the  customhouses  of  Santo  Domingo; 
economic  and  military  intervention  in  Central  America;  the 


266 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


‘big  stick/  dollar  diplomacy,  and  the  Lodge  declaration.” 
This  is  a compact  statement  of  Latin-American  opinion  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine. 

In  recent  years  there  have  arisen  a number  of  advocates  in 
the  United  States  favoring  the  abandonment  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  as  being  a hindrance  to  the  best  relations  between 
the  two  Americas.  The  chief  supporter  of  this  policy  is  Pro- 
fessor Hiram  Bingham,  of  Yale  University.  The  reasons  he 
gives  for  abandoning  the  doctrine  are  as  follows:  (1)  The 
original  Monroe  Doctrine  has  been  disregarded  on  several 
occasions  by  the  United  States  herself;  (2)  There  is  no  longer 
any  danger  of  any  European  power  extending  their  system  to 
this  hemisphere;  (3)  The  larger  of  the  Latin-American  states 
shall  the  Monroe  are  no  longer  infants  and  therefore  resent 

Doctrine  Be  our  interference  in  their  affairs,  and  we 

Abandoned?  could  be  better  friends  without  it;  (4)  Their 

friendship  is  worth  having,  and  we  cannot  afford  to  treat 
them  so  as  to  estrange  them;  (5)  The  modern  form  which  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  has  taken,  known  as  the  “American  police- 
man” idea,  is  not  only  liable  to  cost  us  the  friendship  of  the 
Latin-American  states,  but  also  the  friendship  of  the  European 
states  as  well;  (6)  We  should  give  up  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
because  the  premises  on  which  it  was  founded  no  longer 
exist. 

In  the  light  of  the  revelations  which  were  made  within 
the  last  few  months,  relative  to  the  operations  and  purposes 
of  Germany  in  Latin  America,  it  is  quite  probable  that  opposi- 
tion to  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  both  in  Latin  America  and  in 
Effects  of  the  the  United  States,  will  be  somewhat  lessened. 

European  War  Upon  That  there  has  been  danger  from  German 

the  Monroe  Doctrine  ambitions  in  the  western  hemisphere  is  now 

quite  evident,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  indications  that  the 
Latin-American  states  would  be  less  resentful  toward  the 
United  States  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  There  is  no  indica- 
tion whatever  that  the  United  States  will  abandon  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  because  of  her  participation  in  the  European  war; 
rather  her  defense  of  the  principle  of  the  doctrine  will  become 
even  more  tenacious. 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


267 


Pan-Americanism 


Pan-Americanism 

Defined 


The  idea  that  all  the  republics  of  the  New  World  should 
draw  closer  together  has  become  known  as  Pan-Americanism. 
This  idea  was  first  advanced  by  James  G.  Blaine  when  secre- 
tary of  state  in  President  Garfield’s  cabinet,1 
and  was  again  taken  up  by  him  when  he 
became  secretary  of  state  in  President  Har- 
rison’s Cabinet.  In  one  sense  this  idea  is  an  outgrowth  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine,  while  in  another  it  is  the  abnegation  of  the 
doctrine.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  means  something  imposed 
upon  Latin  America,  whether  they  want  it  or  not.  Pan- 
Americanism  means  the  cooperation  of  all  the  republics  in 
carrying  out  any  policy  affecting  the  two  Americas. 

Secretary  Blaine  proposed  a Pan-American  Congress  in  1881, 
but  when  he  went  out  of  office  after  Garfield’s  death  his  Latin- 
American  policy  was  dropped.  The  first  Congress  was  held  in 
The  First  Pan-  1889-1890,  when  Blaine  returned  to  office 

American  Congress,  under  Harrison,  and  at  this  first  Pan- 

1889-1890  American  meeting  Blaine  played  the  chief 

role.  Many  delegates  attended  from  Latin  America.  There 
was  much  speech-making,  and  altogether  the  Congress  left  a 
good  impression  and  promoted  better  understanding  between 
the  various  American  states.  Its  chief  accomplishment  was 
the  creation  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Republics,  with  head- 
quarters at  Washington.  This  organization  has  continued  its 
work  until  the  present  time,  and  has  done  much  toward  in- 
creasing American  knowledge  and  interest  in  Latin  America. 

A second  Pan-American  Congress  met  in  the  City  of  Mexico 
in  1901-1902.  This  conference  accomplished  little  of  im- 
portance. A third  Congress  was  held  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  in 
1906,  which  proved  much  more  successful  than  either  of  its 
forerunners.  Among  the  things  accomplished  was  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  Bureau  of  American  Republics.  The  Bureau 
was  given  authority  to  correspond  with  the  various  American 


1 Bolivar,  in  a sense,  was  the  originator  of  the  Pan-American  idea,  and  the  first  Pan- 
American  Congress  met  at  his  call  at  Panama  in  1826.  To  Henry  Clay  belongs  the  honor 
of  being  the  first  Pan-American  in  the  United  States.  (See  Chandler,  Inter- American 
Acquaintances,  Chapter  IV,  on  the  "Pan  Americanism  of  Henry  Clay.”) 


268 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


gresses  and  the 
Pan-American  Union 


governments,  when  it  had  certain  matters  to  recommend,  such 
as  the  ratification  of  treaties,  and  its  action  took  on  a semi- 
c . . _ . . official  stamp.  Into  its  hands  also  was  placed 

Tne  becona  ana  Tnira  # r 

Pan-American  Con-  the  responsibility  of  preparing  programs  for 
future  Congresses,  and  its  scope  in  a number 
of  other  directions  was  considerably  enlarged. 
Provision  was  also  made  for  the  securing  of  a building  at 
Washington  to  house  the  Bureau.  This  has  since  been  erected. 
The  Bureau  is  now  composed  of  a governing  board  consisting 
of  the  secretary  of  state  of  the  United  States  and  the  diplomatic 
representatives  in  Washington  of  the  other  American  republics. 
It  publishes  an  official  bulletin  and  descriptive  pamphlets,  has 
collected  a large  library,  and  has  served  in  many  ways  to 
spread  information.  At  the  third  Congress  Mr.  Root,  the  head 
of  the  American  Cabinet,  was  the  official  representative  from 
the  United  States.  He  made  an  excellent  impression  upon 
Latin  Americans  both  by  his  bearing  and  speeches. 

A fourth  Congress  met  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  1910, 
and  a fifth  was  due  to  meet  five  years  later,  but  owing  to  the 
breaking  out  of  the  present  war  the  meeting  has  not  yet  been 
held. 

Those  Americans  who  understand  their  southern  neighbors 
best  feel  strongly  that  the  United  States  cannot  afford  longer 
to  disregard  the  opinion  of  the  Latin-American  states.  The 
larger  states,  especially  Argentina,  Brazil,  and 
tt?MTmoeaDoc”“ed  Chile>  ought  certainly  to  be  taken  into  the 
councils  of  the  United  States  in  determining 
Latin-American  affairs.  It  has  been  wisely  suggested  that 
instead  of  keeping  the  Monroe  Doctrine  for  the  United  States 
to  enforce  alone,  it  should  become  Pan-American  in  its  scope. 
If  the  United  States  would  share  the  responsibility  which  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  imposes  upon  her  with  the  other  republics, 
Latin-American  criticism  and  distrust  of  the  United  States 
would  likely  disappear.  That  Pan-Americanism  is  gaining  in 
the  United  States  is  evidenced  by  recent  statements  of  Pres- 
ident Wilson. 

The  present  war  is  also  having  beneficial  influence  in 
strengthening  Pan-Americanism.  Five  of  the  Latin  republics 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


269 


The  Present  War 
and  Pan-Americanism 


Latin  American 
Foreign  Trade 


have  made  declarations  of  war  against  Germany,  and  have 
declared  their  intention  of  standing  with  the 
United  States  on  the  issues  before  the  world. 
This  cannot  help  but  strengthen  the  ties 
binding  the  two  Americas.  Never  has  the  United  States  been 
so  desirous  of  the  good  opinion  of  Latin  America,  and  this 
desire  is  being  manifested  in  a greater  effort  to  allay  the  sus- 
picion which  Latin  Americans  have  long  felt  toward  their 
neighbor  to  the  north. 

Commerce 

The  two  leading  nations  in  Latin  America,  in  the  volume  of 
their  foreign  trade,  are  Argentina  and  Brazil.  Ranking  next 
come  Cuba,  Mexico,  and  Chile,  while  Uruguay,  Bolivia,  Colom- 
bia, and  Venezuela  belong  to  a third  group. 
Paraguay,  Nicaragua,  and  Honduras  with 
Ecuador  have  the  least  foreign  trade.  The 
total  Latin  American  trade  in  1913  was  $2,874,529,054,  and  of 
this  total  53  per  cent  was  exports  and  47  per  cent  imports.  Of 
the  countries  interested  in  this  trade  Great  Britain  led  with 
27  per  cent;  Germany  came  second  with  18  per  cent;  the 
United  States  third  with  17  per  cent;  France  fourth  with  9 
per  cent. 

The  United  States  holds  first  place  in  the  export  trade  of  all 
the  republics  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  except  Guatemala.  In  Brazilian 
export  trade  the  United  States  also  holds 
first  place.  With  the  other  South  American  states,  however, 
the  United  States  ranks  after  Great  Britain.  The  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  share  first  rank  among  the  foreign 
nations  from  which  the  Latin-American 
states  receive  most  of  their  imported  goods. 
The  United  States  surpasses  Great  Britain  in  the  import  trade 
of  all  the  republics  of  North  America,  and  in  none  of  the  re- 
publics of  South  America  except  Colombia  and  Venezuela. 

The  effect  of  the  present  war  upon  Latin-American  trade 
has  been  marked.  Previous  to  1914  Germany  had  gained  a 
large  share  of  South  and  Central  American  commerce,  and  in 
several  of  the  republics  took  rank  after  Great  Britain  in  the 


The  Export  Trade 


The  Import  Trade 


270 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


volume  of  trade.  The  war  completely  cut  off  this  German 
trade,  with  the  result  that  much  of  it  came  to  the  United 

Effects  of  the  Present  States.  In  1913  the  Latin-American  exports 
war  upon  Latin-  were  distributed  as  follows:  31.09  per  cent  to 
American  Trade  the  United  States;  29.27  per  cent  to  Great 
Britain;  and  all  other  countries  39.65  per  cent.  In  1916  the 
United  States  had  45.35  per  cent  of  the  export  trade,  Great 
Britain  had  increased  slightly  over  1913,  while  the  exports  to 
other  countries  had  fallen  to  25.05  per  cent.  Even  a greater 
increase  is  noted  in  the  volume  of  Latin-American  import 
trade.  In  1913  the  United  States  sent  24.79  per  cent  of  the 
total  imports  into  Latin  America,  while  in  1916  the  United 
States’  share  of  the  Latin-American  import  trade  was  51.17 
per  cent.  In  1913  Great  Britain  and  France,  combined,  had 
32.07  per  cent  of  the  import  trade,  but  in  1916  their  share 
had  fallen  to  22.87  per  cent.  The  share  of  all  other  countries  fell 
during  the  same  years  from  43.14  per  cent  to  25.96  per  cent. 

The  effect  of  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  upon  commer- 
cial relations  with  Latin  America  can  only  be  determined  by 
the  future.  It  has  not  yet  been  in  operation  long  enough  to 
Probable  Effect  of  even  approximate  its  influence.  Then  the 

the  Panama  Canal  fact  that  its  opening  took  place  since  the 

upon  commerce  European  war  began  makes  impossible  an  es- 
timate of  its  influence  during  normal  times.  That  its  influence 
has  been  overestimated  is  probably  true.  It  will  decrease  by 
three  thousand  miles  the  distance  from  the  Pacific  ports  of 
South  America  to  the  southern  and  eastern  ports  of  the  United 
States,  which  will  cheapen  such  products  as  phosphates  and 
Bolivian  tin.  It  will  not,  however,  decrease  in  the  least  the 
distance  between  the  Atlantic  ports  of  South  America  and  the 
eastern  ports  of  the  United  States. 

Latin-American  products  are  needed  as  never  before.  The 
world  is  hungry  and  Latin  America  is  rich  in  food.  Wheat 
and  meats,  coffee  and  cocoa  are  staple  products  which  the 
world  demands.  Her  hides  and  rubber,  besides  her  vast 
supply  of  minerals — copper,  tin,  lead,  phosphates,  oil — all 
will  be  needed  in  the  period  of  reconstruction.  It  looks  very 
much  as  though  Latin  America’s  time  had  come.  Political 


LATIN  AMERICAN 

EXPORTS 

1913  and  1916 


BOO, 000,000 


is  I*  I!  S«  Ks 


PA/f  c/Afonr 


LATIN  AMERICAN 

IMPORTS 

1913  and  1916 


1913  1916 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


271 


stability  is  on  the  increase,  financial  responsibility  is  assured, 
while  the  relations  between  the  two  Americas  are  becoming 
more  and  more  cordial.  Economically  Latin  America  is  bound 
to  progress  more  in  the  next  fifty  years  than  in  the  previous 
four  hundred. 

READING  REFERENCES 
Relations  op  Latin  America  with  Europe 

South  America,  Observations  and  Impressions,  by  James  Bryce,  Chapter 
XIV.  The  Republics  of  South  and  Central  America,  by  C.  Reginald  Enock. 

Relations  op  Latin  America  with  the  United  States 

The  United  States  as  a World  Power,  by  A.  C.  Cooledge  (1908).  Diplo- 
matic Relations  of  the  United  States  and  Spanish  America,  by  J.  H.  Latane 
(1903).  America  as  a World  Power,  by  J.  H.  Latane.  American  Diplomacy, 
by  C.  R.  Fish  (1915),  Chapters  XXIX,  XXX.  Latin  America,  by  George 
H.  Blakeslee  (1913),  Chapters  XX,  XXI,  XXII,  XXIII.  American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science  (1915-1916).  The  Two  Americas, 
by  Rafael  Reyes  (1914).  Life  of  John  Hay,  by  H.  R.  Thayer  (1915). 
Vol.  II,  Chapter  XXIX. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine 

The  United  States  as  a World  Power,  by  A.  C.  Cooledge.  America  as  a 
World  Power,  by  J.  H.  Latane  (1907),  Chapter  XV.  The  Monroe  Doctrine 
an  Obsolete  Shibboleth,  by  Hiram  Bingham  (1913).  The  Monroe  Doctrine, 
by  A.  B.  Hart  (1916).  Latin  America,  by  George  H.  Blakeslee,  Chapters 
IX,  X,  XI,  XII,  XIII,  XIV.  American  Diplomacy,  by  C.  R.  Fish,  XVII, 
XXIII,  XXVII.  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Vol. 
XIV,  July,  1914,  contains  a series  of  papers  on  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

Pan-Americanism 

“The  Pan-American  Conference,”  North  American  Review,  1890,  pp.  354- 
367,  407-421.  The  Pan-American  Union,  by  John  Barrett  (1911).  Inter- 
American  Acquaintances,  by  C.  L.  Chandler.  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science , Vol.  XIV,  pp.  1-4.  Publications  of  the  Pan-American 
Union. 

The  Panama  Canal 

The  United  States  as  a World  Power,  by  A.  C.  Cooledge.  America  as  a 
World  Power,  by  J.  H.  Latane,  Chapter  XII.  Latin  America,  by  George 
H.  Blakeslee,  Chapter  XVIII.  American  Academy,  Vol.  XIV,  July,  1914, 
pp.  84-91.  Anqlo-American  Isthmian  Diplomacy,  by  M.  W.  Williams  (1916). 

Commerce 

General  Descriptive  Pamphlets,  Pan-American  Union.  Republics  of  South 
and  Central  America,  by  C.  Reginald  Enock.  Latin  America,  by  George  H. 
Blakeslee,  Chapters  XV,  XVI,  XVII.  Latin  America,  by  W.  R.  Shepherd, 
Chapter  XIV.  Caribbean  Interests  of  the  United  States,  by  C.  L.  Jones 
(1916);  South  and  Central  American  Trade,  by  A.  H.  Verrill  (1914). 


INDEX 


A 

Adelantado,  76,  98 
Of  Peru,  66 

Administration,  Spanish  Colonial, 
94-100 

Importance  of,  94 
Place  of  Sovereigns  in,  99 
Africa,  7,  10,  11,  12,  13,  32,  41,  84 
Capes  of,  33 
Coast  of,  34,  76 
South,  143 
Agriculture 

Agricultural  colonies  of  Spain,  46, 
75-83;  Aztec,  105;  Brazilian, 
86;  Early  Spanish  Agriculture 
in  America,  105;  Inca,  68,  69, 
105;  Jesuit,  82;  Later  agricul- 
ture in  the  Colonies,  106;  Mex- 
ican (colonial),  105;  Present 
day,  240-243;  Venezuelan,  77, 
148 

Alaric,  10 

Alaska,  21 

Alcalde,  56,  99 

Alexander  VI,  Pope,  37,  96 

Algarves,  32 

Alhambra,  35 

Allende,  170 

Almagro,  65,  66,  70,  71,  73 
Almagro  the  Boy,  71 
Alps,  10 

Alvarado,  55,  62,  64 
Alverez,  Diego,  85 
Amazon,  River,  22-24,  86,  90,  109, 
251 

America  (see  also  United  States), 
16,  17,  18,  20,  43,  44 
Discovery  of,  32,  46;  Naming 
of,  44 

American  Revolution,  142 
Anconcagua,  23 
Andagoya,  Pascual  de,  65 
Andes,  22,  23,  27,  67 
Antigua,  Island,  39 
Antilles,  Greater,  39;  Lesser,  39 
Arabia,  11-12 
Aragon,  14,  16,  34,  36,  37 
Arawaks,  28 

Araucanians,  28-29,  74,  123 


Argentina 

Agriculture  in,  240-241;  Civil 
War  in,  159;  Creole  party  in, 
157;  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, 159;  Early  years  of  inde- 
pendence, 189-190;  Education 
in,  229,  230;  Government  of, 
216-217;  Immigration  to,  225- 
226;  Indians  of,  28,  221;  Junta 
organized,  156;  Junta  Govern- 
ment, 157;  Mestizos  in,  224; 
Mitre,  General  President,  191; 
Population,  225;  Provinces,  82; 
Railroads,  248;  Recent  history, 
of,  192;  Rivadavia,  President, 
and  his  successors,  190;  Roca, 
President,  192;  Rosas,  Juan 
Manuel  de, 190-191 ; Sarmiento, 
President,  192;  Urquiza,  Pres- 
ident, 190,  191 
Arians,  10 
Artigas,  Jose,  160 
Asia,  37,  40,  43 
Asturians,  8,  146 

Asuncion,  81,  137;  Founded,  80,  82 
Atahuallpa  (The  Inca),  68,  69,  70, 
106 

Atlantic  coast,  26,  64 
Audiencia 

Bogota,  established,  78;  Colonial, 
99;  Spanish,  95 
Augustinian  monks,  124,  125 
Ayacucho,  Battle  of,  163 
Aymaras,  29-30 
Aztecs,  27,  55,  62,  63 
Civilization  of,  30-31;  58-68; 
Empire  of,  57,  58;  Govern- 
ment, Laws,  and  Religion  of, 
59-60 

Azores,  33,  37,  38,  85 
B 

Bahama,  Island,  36,  76 
Bahia,  84,  85,  88,  228 
Balboa,  43,  51 
Discovers  Pacific,  52-53,  65 
Bancroft,  George.  102 
Barcelona  (Spam),  37;  (Venezuela), 
77 


273 


274 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Basques,  8 
Bastidas,  42 

Belgrano,  General,  157,  159 
Benalcazar,  78 
Berber,  11,  12 
Bio  Bio,  River,  24,  74 
Bobadilla,  40,  41,  47 
Bogota,  78,  136,  137,  146,  151,  153, 
228 

Bolivar,  Simon,  150-151,  152 
Campaigns  of,  151-156;  Creates 
Republic  of  Colombia,  153- 
154;  Estimate  of,  177;  in  Peru, 
163;  Last  years,  176-177 
Bolivia 

Agriculture  in,  242;  Ballivan, 
President,  186;  Belzu,  Pres- 
ident of,  186;  Bolivar  and,  186; 
Education  in,  231;  in  Peru- 
Chilean  War,  187;  Indians  of, 
29,  221;  Lakes  of,  24;  Mestizos 
of,  224;  Mining  in,  244;  Moun- 
tains of,  23;  Population,  225; 
Railroads  in,  249;  Recent  prob- 
lems, 187;  Republic  estab- 
lished, 176,  186;  Santa  Cruz, 
President  of,  186;  Slavery  abol- 
ished in,  186;  Sucre,  General, 
President  of,  186 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  145,  149,  156, 
169 

Boves,  151 

Boyaca,  Battle  of,  153 
Boyle,  Bernardo,  38,  47 
Brazil,  21,  22,  24,  38,  42 

Abolition  of  Slave  trade  in,  148; 
Agriculture  in,  88,  241;  Bad 
government  in,  91;  Coast  of, 
43, 88;  Colonization  of,  46;  Dis- 
covery of,  84-85;  Dutch  in,  88, 
89;  Education,  230;  Eighteenth 
century,  92-93 ; English  in,  88; 
French  in,  88,  90-91;  Immigra- 
tion to,  225-226;  Independence 
of,  168;  Indians  of,  221 ; King- 
dom of,  166-167;  Mestizos  of, 
224;  Movement  toward  Na- 
tionalism, 167;  Negro  popula- 
tion, 222,  224;  Negro  slaves, 
92, 198,  199;  Pedro  I,  Reign  of, 
197;  Pedro  II,  Reign  of,  197, 
198;  Plantations  in,  86,  88; 
Population  in  1800,  92,  127; 
Population,  present,  225;  Re- 
public of,  established,  199; 
Royal  family  in,  165-166;  Sev- 
enteenth century,  90;  Sixteenth 


century,  88;  Topography  of, 
23;  Wars  of,  197-198 
Brazil  wood,  84 
British.  (See  English) 

In  wars  for  Independence,  152-153 
Brown,  William,  159 
Bryce,  James,  140,  253,  255 
Buccaneers,  130 

Buenos  Ayres  (see  also  La  Plata), 
24,  28,  82,  110,  156,  160,  228 
Captured  by  English,  143-144; 
Contraband  traide  of,  104,  138; 
Creoles  of,  159;Founded,  79-81; 
Junta  of,  146;  Population  of, 
in  1800,  128;  Viceroyalty  of, 
133,  138  _ 

C 

Cabildos,  149 
Cabot,  Sebastian,  79 
Cabral,  42,  84 
Cadiz,  38,  40,  41,  102,  104 
California,  131 
Canary  Islands,  34,  36,  39 
Capac,  Huayna,  68 
Cape  Colony,  143 
Cape  de  la  Vela,  50,  77 
Cape  Horn,  22 
Captain  General,  98-99 
Carabobo,  Battle  of,  153 
Caracas,  77,  135,  142, 146,  149,  150, 
151,  154,  228 
Caribs,  28 

Carthagena,  50,  51,  77,  78,  146,  151 
Carthaginians,  8,  13 
Casa  de  Contratacion.  (See  In- 
dian House) 

Castile,  14,  15,  16 
Crown  of,  76;  Institutions  of,  94 
Castro,  President  (Venezuela),  179 
Castro,  Vaca  de,  71 
Catholic  Faith,  10,  17,  18,  20 
Catholic  Kings,  17,  36,  37,  40,  94, 
95  96 

Cattle  Industry,  106,  240-245 
Caxamarca,  69,  70 
Central  America,  7,  21,  41,  98,  210- 
213 


Agriculture,  243;  Buccaneers 
130;  Colonization  of,  46;  Edu 
cation  in,  231;  First  Confed 
eration  of,  210;  Geography  of 
26-27;  Independence  of,  173, 
Intervention  in,  by  United 
States,  259;  Later  attempts  at 
confederation,  211,  213;  Mining 
in,  245;  Population  of,  225; 
Railroads,  250;  States  of,  129; 


INDEX 


275 


United  States  and,  257;  Wil- 
liam Walker  in,  212 
Chacabuco,  Battle  of,  160 
Charcas  (Bolivia),  138 
Charles  III,  King  of  Spain,  104,  130 
Charles  V,  Emperor,  66,  71,  75,  129 
Chibchas,  29,  30,  78 
Chile 

Agriculture,  241;  Audiencia  of, 
136;  Balmaceda,  President, 
195-196;  Bulnes,  Manuel,  Pres- 
ident of,  193;  Civil  War  in 
(1891),  195-196;  Colonial  Gov- 
ernment of,  136;  Conquest  of, 
46,  73-74;  Conservative  con- 
trol in,  194;  De  Bravo,  Don 
Melchor,  Governor,  136;  Edu- 
cation in,  230;  Immigration  to, 
225-226;  Independence  of,  160- 
161;  Indians  of,  73,  136,  221; 
Junta  organized,  158;  Liberal 
control  in,  194;  Maipo,  Battle 
of,  160;  Mestizos  of,  224;  Min- 
ing in,  244;  Montt,  Manuel, 
President,  193;  Nitrate  of,  194; 
O’Higgins,  Bernardo,  160,  193; 
Political  history  (1817-1830), 
193;  Population  in  1800,  127; 
Population,  present,  225;  Por- 
tales,  193;  Prieto,  President, 
193;  Railroads  of,  249;  Recent 
history  in,  196;  San  Martin 
in,  160;  Santa  Maria,  Pres- 
ident, 195;  Wars  for  independ- 
ence in,  158,  160-161;  War 
with  Peru,  194 

Christian  states  of  Spain,  8,  15,  16 
Christian  worship,  13,  20 
Christianity,  introduced  in  Latin 
America,  234 
Cholula  (Mexico),  60 
Church,  The,  17 

In  Latin  American  Society,  124- 
125;  Property  in  the  colonies, 
125;  Relation  to  Indians,  121; 
Revenues  of,  in  the  colonies, 
115;  Roman,  15;  Types  of  work 
in  Latin  America,  124 
Cid,  The,  15 

Cities,  Latin  American,  227-228 
Clayton-Bulwer,  Treaty,  211 
Climate,  Latin  American,  24-25 
Economic  influence  of,  239 
Cochrane,  Sir  Thomas,  149, 161, 168 
Coligny,  Admiral,  87 
Colombia,  21,  23,  24,  46,  77 
Agriculture  in,  242;  Constitution 


of  1821,  154;  Created  by  Bol- 
ivar, 153:  Education  in,  231; 
Greater  Colombia,  176;  Inter- 
vention in,  by  United  States, 
264;  Mestizos  of,  224;  Mining 
in,  245;  Natives  of,  29;  Negroes 
in,  224;  Population  of,  225; 
Railroads  in,  250;  Revolutions 
in,  180-181;  Since  Independ- 
ence, 179-181;  Waterways  of, 
251 

Colonization,  of  Islands,  46-50 
Of  the  mainland,  18,  46-93 
Columbus,  Bartholomew,  35,  39, 
40,  47 

Columbus,  Christopher,  7,  8,  33-42, 
84 

As  Governor,  46-47 
Columbus,  Diego,  35,  39,  47,  48,  50 
Columbus,  Ferdinand,  44 
Commerce.  (See  Trade) 

Cordoba  (Spain),  13,  16,  34 
Cordoba  (Argentina),  143,  228 
Cordoba,  Hernandez  de,  55 
Coro  (Venezuela),  75,  77,  149,  150 
Corregidor 

Colonial,  121;  Spanish,  95 
Corrientes,  82 

Cortes,  Hernando,  56, 57,  58-65,  72, 
94,  130 

Cosa,  Juan  de  la,  50 
Costa  Rica,  211 
Cotopaxi,  23 

Council  of  Castile,  94,  95 
Council  of  the  Indies,  47,  95,  97, 100 
Established,  97 
Cozumel,  Island  of,  55,  56 
Creoles,  82,  123,  141,  144,  149,  156, 
158 

Jealousy  between  European  born 
and,  141-142,  168;  Traits  of, 
151 

Creole  Party,  150 
Crusades,  16 

Cuba,  27,  36,  39,  40,  43,  46,  48,  51, 
54,  55,  56,  58,  62,  72,  143 
Agriculture  in,  243;  Captaincy- 
General  of,  99;  Colonization  of, 
49;  Natives  of,  28,  48,  49;  Pop- 
ulation, 225;  Railroads  of,  250; 
Slaves  in,  112;  United  States 
and,  259-261 
Cuyo,  Province  of,  138 
Cuzco,  29,  67,  68,  70,  71,  132,  155 

D 

Da  Gama,  Vasco,  33,  41,  42,  43,  84 


276 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Da  Sa,  Mem,  87 
Darien.  (See  Panama) 

Colony  of,  52,  53,  66;  Gulf  of,  50, 
51;  River  of,  50;  Santa  Maria 
del,  51 

De  Garay,  81 

De  Leyva,  Andres  Venero,  78,  79 
Demarcation  Line,  38 
De  Medici,  44 
De  Soto,  Hernando,  69 
De  Torre,  General,  153 
De  Vaca,  80,  81 
Diaz,  Bartholomew,  33 
Diaz,  Juan,  58 

Diaz,  Porfirio,  President  of  Mexico, 
202,  205,  208,  256 
Administration  of  (1877-1910), 
209 

Dominica,  Island  of,  39 
Dominican  Friars,  48,  124,  125,  131 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  76,  130,  142 
Dutch,  88,  143 

Buccaneers,  130;  In  Brazil,  88-89, 
92;  In  West  Indies,  143 


E 

East  Indies,  43 
Economic  Conditions 
Colonial,  102-116;  Present,  238- 
251;  Spanish,  8,  18 
Ecuador,  23,  67 

Agriculture  in,  242;  Education, 
231 ; Enters  Confederation,  155; 
Indians  of,  23,  221;  Mestizos 
in,  224;  Mountains  of,  23; 
Population  of,  225;  Since  inde- 
pendence, 181-183;  Wars  for 
independence,  154-155 
Education 

Colonial,  125-127,  229;  Present 
day,  228-232;  Scholarship  (Co- 
lonial), 126;  Universities  (Colo- 
nial), 126;  Roman  Church  and, 
229 

El  Dorado,  76-77,  80 
Encomienda,  76,  110-111 
Beginning  of,  118-119;  New  laws 
relating  to,  120 

England,  7,  16,  21,  102,  103,  148 
Relations  with  Latin  America, 
255 

English,  46,  112.  (See  British) 
Buccaneers,  130;  Capture  Buenos 
Ayres,  142-144;  Commercial 
interests  in  Latin  America,  142, 
269,  270;  In  West  Indies,  143; 


In  Wars  for  Independence, 
152-153,  173-174,  175 

F 

Fair  God,  The,  59 
Fair  System 
In  Spanish  colonies,  103 
Ferdinand,  King  of  Aragon,  16,  17, 
34,  35,  47,  50,  94,  111 
Ferdinand  VII,  King  of  Spain,  145, 
149,  156,  169,  170 
Fleets 

Spanish  Merchant,  103,  104 
Flores,  Juan  Jose,  182 
Florida,  21,  43 
Fonseca,  39,  64 
France,  10,  16,  21,  35,  85,  143 
Francia,  Dr.,  Dictator  of  Paraguay, 
183 

Franciscan  Order,  122, 124, 125,  131 
French 

Buccaneers,  130;  In  Brazil,  87; 
In  West  Indies,  143;  Relations 
with  Latin  America,  255;  Rev- 
olution, 148,  150 
Frias,  Manuel  de,  82 

G 

Genoa,  33,  34,  39,  51 
Geography 

Economic  influence  of,  239 
Germans 

In  Venezuela,  75,  76;  In  Brazil, 
and  Chile,  226;  Relations  with 
Latin  America,  254 
Gold,  51,  62,  69,  77,  78 
First  found  by  Spaniards,  106- 
107;  In  Brazil,  90;  In  Mexico, 
102;  In  Peru,  102 
Gothic 

Language,  11;  Population  in 
Spain,  11 
Goths,  10,  12 
Government 

Argentina,  216-217;  Bolivia,  219; 
Brazilian,  217-218;  Character- 
istics of,  in  Latin  America,  214- 
215;  Chilean,  219;  Cuba,  220; 
Haiti,  220;  Mexican,  215-216; 
Peruvian,  219;  Republics  of 
Central  America,  219-220; 
Spanish  Colonial,  140-141; 
Uruguay,  219;  Venezuela,  218- 
219 

Gracias  a Dios,  Cape,  41,  50 
Granada,  16,  34,  35,  60 


INDEX 


277 


Great  Britain.  (See  England) 
Greeks,  8,  10,  13 
Grijalva,  Juan  de,  55,  56 
Guadalajara,  109,  169,  228 
Guadalete,  River  (Spain),  12 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Treaty  of,  205 
Guatemala,  64,  99,  210,  211,  212 

Independence  of,  173;  Interven- 
tion in,  by  United  States,  264 
Guayaquil,  22,  155,  162,  228 
Guiana,  22,  28 

Agriculture  in,  242;  Natives  of,  28 
Guicciardini,  Italian  Historian,  18, 
19 

Guzman-Bianco,  President  Vene- 
zuela, 178-179 

H 

Habana,  49,  55,  72 

Captured  by  English,  104 
Haiti  (see  also  Santo  Domingo),  27, 
37,  149 

Agriculture  in,  243;  Native  of,  28; 
Railroads,  250;  Slaves,  111, 
112;  Trade,  148 
Hamilcar,  Barca,  9 
Hannibal,  9 

Hawkins,  John,  76,  111,  130,  142 
Henry,  Prince,  The  Navigator, 
32-33 

Henry  VII,  King  of  England,  35 
Hidalgo  (Spanish  Knight),  17, 39, 47 
Hidalgo,  Miguel,  169-170 
Hispaniola  (Haiti),  39,  40,  41,  42, 
43,  46-48,  50,  53,  54,  55,  63, 
72,  75 

Holland,  90.  (See  Dutch) 
Honduras,  64,  210,  212 

Gold  in,  106;  Government  of,  220 
Houston,  Sam,  203 
Huascar,  The  Inca,  68,  70 
Huguenots,  87 

Humboldt,  105,  108,  109,  123 

I 

Iberians,  7,  8,  11,  13 
Immigration  (Latin  American), 
225-227 
Incas,  29,  85 

Civilization  of,  29-30,  67-69; 
Empire  of,  67;  Industrial  or- 
ganization of,  68-69 
India,  85 

Indian  Affairs,  Department  of,  38, 
39 

Established,  38 


Indian  House,  97,  102-103,  111 
Indians  (see  Natives),  27,  28,  48, 
50,  52,  60,  63 

Bolivian,  29;  Chilean,  29;  Cuban, 
28,  48;  Haiti,  28,  39;  New  Laws 
concerning,  120;  Peru,  29; 
Wages  of,  in  Colonies,  121; 
Porto  Rico,  49;  Treatment  of 
by  Spaniards,  118 
Indies,  38,  44 
Inquisition,  17,  18 
In  Colonies,  125,  140;  Spanish, 
16,  118 

Institutions,  Colonial,  94 
Intendencies,  100 
International  relations,  253-269 
Intervention 
United  States,  264 
Invasion  (of  Spain) 

Suevi,  10;  Vandal,  10;  West 
Goth,  10 

Irala,  Governor  of  Paraguay,  80 
Administration  of,  80-81;  Allows 
polygamy,  122 

Isabella,  Queen,  16,  17,  34,  35,  39, 
41,  47,  94 

Isabella  (Hispaniola  colony),  39,  47 
Isthmus  of  Panama  (see  Darien), 
22,  52 
Italy,  10 

Merchants  of,  44;  Relations  with 
Latin  America,  254 
Iturbide,  Agustin  de  (Emperor  of 
Mexico),  171-172 


J 

Jamaica,  39,  42,  49,  51,  54,  72,  149 
Captured  by  English,  130,  142; 
Slaves  in,  112;  Trade  with,  148 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  148 
Jesuits,  124 

Expelled  from  Brazil,  92;  From 
New  Spain,  130-131;  Mission- 
aries, 82;  In  Paraguay,  82;  Re- 
stored in  Colombia,  180;  Work 
in  Brazil,  87,  90,  91 
Jews,  7,  8,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  16,  18, 
118 

John,  Dom,  of  Portugal,  165 
Becomes  John  VI,  166 
John  IV,  King  of  Portugal,  89 
John  V,  King  of  Portugal,  91 
Juarez,  Benito,  President  (Mexico), 
202,  205-206,  208 
Junin,  Lake,  24 


278 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Junta,  146,  151 

In  the  Colonies,  146;  Of  Caracas, 
149;  Of  Cartagena,  152;  Organ- 
ization of  in  Spain,  146 

K 

Kalifs,  16 
King,  Rufus,  148 
Knights,  Orders  of,  15,  17,  20 
Alcantara,  15;  Calatrave,  15; 
Evora,  15;  Hospitalers,  15; 
Santiago,  15;  Templars,  15; 
Teutonic,  15 

L 

Labor 

Indian,  110-111;  Negro,  111-112 
Labrador,  21 
La  Cosa,  42 

Lakes,  Latin  American,  24 
La  Navidad,  Colony  of,  37,  39,  46, 
47 

Land  question  in  Latin  America,  245 
La  Noche  Triste,  63 
La  Paz,  155 

La  Plata  (see  Buenos  Ayres),  23, 
24,  28,  75,  86,  137-138 
Colonization  of,  79-82;  Popula- 
tion, 127 

La  Plata,  Rio  de,  44,  46,  251 
Las  Casas,  36,  49,  111,  119 
Latin  America 

Americans  in,  226;  Anglo-Saxon 
America  and,  253;  Asiatics  in, 
226;  Church  and  state,  rela- 
tion of  in,  236-237;  Cities  of, 
228;  Colonization  of,  7,  46-93; 
Education  in,  228-232;  Euro- 
peans in,  225;  French  in,  226; 
Geography  of,  21-27 ; Germans 
in,  226;  Immigration  to,  226- 
227;  Italians  in,  226;  Labor  in, 
246-247;  Land  question  in, 
245-246;  Mining  in,  243-245; 
Monroe  Doctrine  and,  264-265; 
Morals  of,  221-225;  Native 
races,  27-31;  Newspapers, 
233-234;  Piety  in,  235;  Popu- 
lation in,  1800,  127-128;  Pres- 
ent population,  225;  Products 
of,  240;  Races  and  society  in, 
221-237;  Railroads,  247-250; 
Religious  liberty  in,  236-237; 
Ruling  race,  characteristics  of, 
223;  Society  in  (Colonial),  118; 
Transportation  in,  247-251; 


Working  classes,  227-228;  Wa- 
terways, 251 
Laws  of  the  Indies,  97 
Lima,  24,  73,  110,  138,  163 
Founded,  70;  Morals  of,  223; 
Population  of,  in  1800,  128; 
Present  population,  228 
Lisbon,  32,  33,  43,  84,  100,  165 
Literature 

Latin  American,  332-333;  Latin, 
9;  Spanish  Colonial,  127 
Llama,  The,  66 

Local  Government,  Colonial,  99 
Lopez,  Carlos  (Paraguayan  dicta- 
tor), 183 

Lopez,  Francisco,  183 
Lusitanians,  8,  9 

M 

Madeira  Islands,  33,  85,  86 
Magdalena  River,  24,  109,  251 
Magellan,  43,  65 
Circumnavigates  earth,  43 
Magellan,  Straits  of,  22,  43 
Maipo,  Battle  of,  160-161 
Maipo,  mountain,  23 
Malacca,  Straits  of,  40 
Malaga,  35 
Manco,  The  Inca 
Proclaimed  Inca,  70;  Manco’s  in- 
surrection, 71 
Manuel,  Nuno,  42 
Manila,  43 

Maracaibo,  Lake,  24;  Province  of, 
149 

Marco  Polo,  34 
Margarite,  The  Priest,  47 
Maria,  Queen,  of  Portugal,  165,  166 
Mayas,  27,  30 

Mendoza,  Antonio,  72,  129-130 
Mendoza,  City  of  (Argentina)  110, 
158,  228 

Mendoza,  Hurtado,  74 
Mendoza,  Pedro  de,  79 
Mestizo,  123,  224 
Mexico.  (See  also  New  Spain) 
Agriculture  in,  242-243;  Alvarez, 
President,  205-206;  Ancient 
civilization  of,  56-60;  City  of, 
61,  63,  73,  169,  228;  Climate, 
26;  Coast  of,  43;  Conquest  of, 
46,  55-65;  Effect  of  conquest 
on  Islands,  72-73;  Creoles  of, 
171;  Diaz,  President,  208;  Edu- 
cation in,  231;  Empire  of  Itur- 
bide,  172;  Empire  of  Max- 


INDEX  279 


imilian,  207;  European  inter- 
vention in,  206;  From  1848- 
1854,  205;  From  1854-1861, 
206;  Geography  of,  25;  Govern- 
ment of,  215-216;  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo,  Treaty  of,  205;  Gulf 
of,  45,  64,  130;  Independence 
of,  171;  Jesuits  expelled  from, 
130;  Juarez,  President  of,  208; 
Land  question  in,  246;  Mines 
of,  25,  244;  Napoleon  III  and, 
207-208;  Natives  of,  25,  221, 
244;  O’Donju,  Viceroy  of,  171; 
Population  of,  in  1800,  127; 
Present  population,  225;  Rail- 
roads in,  250;  Reforms  in 
eighteenth  century,  131;  Re- 
partimientos  in,  119;  Republic 
established,  172,  202;  Revolu- 
tion of  1910-11,  209-210;  Riv- 
ers of,  25;  Santa  Anna  and, 
202-204;  Since  Independence, 
202-210;  States  of,  169;  Texas 
revolt,  243;  United  States  and, 
256,  257;  Wars  for  Independ- 
ence, 168-175;  War  with 
United  States,  204 
Middle  class 

In  Latin  America,  238-239;  In 
Spain,  12 

Miramon,  Miguel,  206 
Miranda,  Francisco  de,  142,  148, 
149,  150 

Death  of,  150 
Mines,  9,  44 

Mexican,  107;  Returns  from,  108 
Mining,  106-108 

Early  Spanish  in  colonies,  107; 
New  methods,  107;  Laws,  107- 
108 

Missionaries,  235,  237 
Missions,  Protestant,  208 
Mississippi  River,  21,  24 
Mita,  110 

In  Peru,  111;  In  Mexico,  111 
Mohammedan  Conquest  of  Spain, 
13 

Rule  in  Spain,  15 
Monasteries,  17,  73 
Monopolies,  114-115 
Monroe  Doctrine 

Formulated,  174-175;  How  af- 
fected by  European  War,  266; 
How  thought  of  by  Latin 
Americans,  264r-265;  By  United 
States,  263;  Shall  it  be  aban- 
doned? 266 


Montevideo  (Uruguay),  144,  156, 
159,  160,  166,  228 
Montezuma  II,  30,  51,  58,  61,  62- 
63,  69 

Moors,  7,  8,  12,  13,  14-16,  17,  18, 
20,  32,  118 

Moralles,  Jose,  Maria,  170 
Morillo,  152,  153 
Mountain  Peaks,  22,  23,  25 
Mulattos,  123 


N 

Napo,  river,  72 
Napoleon,  143 

Invades  Portugal,  165;  Seizes 
Spanish  crown,  145 
Narvaez,  49,  62,  63 
Native  Races.  (See  also  Indians) 
Of  Chile  and  Peru,  29;  Of  Cuba 
and  Haiti,  28;  Of  Eastern  South 
America,  28;  Of  Yucatan,  55 
Negroes,  56,  123,  224 
Importation  of,  48;  Slaves,  110 
New  Castle,  70 

New  Granada  (see  also  Colombia), 
75 

Colonization  of,  77;  De  Eslaba, 
first  Viceroy,  136;  Gorgora, 
Archbishop,  Viceroy,  137;  In- 
dependence of,  151 ; Popula- 
tion in  1800,  127;  Republic 
founded,  179;  Revolt  in,  141; 
Vice-royalty  of,  79,  133,  136- 
137;  Wars  for  Independence  in, 
152-153 

New  Spain  (see  also  Mexico),  64,  98 
Early  viceroys,  130;  Jesuits  ex- 
pelled from,  130,  131;  News- 
papers in,  127;  Political  his- 
tory of  (1600-1800),  129-131 
New  Toledo,  70 
Newspapers 

Brazilian,  233;  Buenos  Ayres, 
233;  Central  American,  233; 
Chilean,  233 
Nicaragua,  211 
Nicuesa,  50,  53 
Plants  colony  on  Isthmus,  52 
Nina,  The,  36,  37 
Nombre,  de  Dios,  52,  65 
Nunez  Rafael,  President  of  Colom- 
bia, 180 

O 

Ocampo,  Spanish  explorer,  43 


280 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


O’Higgins,  Ambrosio,  Viceroy,  133, 
135 

O’Higgins,  Bernardo,  158,  159 
Ojeda,  42,  50,  51,  52-53,  65,  75,  77, 
84 

Olid,  Cristoval  de,  64 
Oriental  influence  on  Spain,  7,  13, 
14 

Orinoco,  River,  22,  23,  40,  77,  109, 
144,  153,  257 

Bolivar’s  campaigns  along,  152 
Ovando,  Nicholas  de,  Governor 
Hispaniola,  42,  47,  48,  50,  122 
Treatment  of  Indians,  119 


P 

Pacific  Ocean,  22,  24,  43,  53,  64 
Coast  of,  64,  65,  130;  Discovery 
of,  43 

Paez,  Dictator  of  Venezuela,  178 
Palos  (Spain),  34,  35,  36,  37 
Pampas,  23 
Indians,  28 
Panama,  109 

Canal,  42,  66,  211,  258,  270;  City 
of,  65,  156;  Isthmus  of,  22, 
42,  45;  Railroad,  211;  Repub- 
lic of,  21,  258-259,  264 
Pan-American  Congress 
First,  176,  267 ; Second  and  third, 
267-268 

Pan-Americanism,  267-269 
Monroe  Doctrine  and,  268;  Euro- 
pean War  and,  269 
Papacy,  77 
Paraguay 

Agriculture  in,  242;  Colonized, 
82;  Education  in,  231 J Inde- 
pendence of,  183;  Indians  in, 
82;  Province  of,  138;  River,  22, 
24,  109,  251;  Since  Independ- 
ence, 183 

Parana  River,  24,  79,  82,  251 
Paulists,  90 

Pedrarias,  Davila,  Governor  of 
Darien,  53,  66 
Pedro,  Dom,  167,  168 
Pernambuco  (Brazil),  85,  88 
Peru 

Abascal,  Fernando,  viceroy  of, 
135,  155;  Agriculture,  242; 
Amit,  Don  Manuel,  viceroy, 
133  J Aviles,  Viceroy  of,  135; 
Bolivar,  Simon,  dictator  of, 
184;  Castilla,  Ramon,  pres- 
ident of,  184;  Civil  War  in,  71; 


Conquest  of,  46,  65-73;  De 
Croix,  Don  Theodoro,  viceroy 
of  (1784-1790),  135;  Early 
dictators,  184;  Early  viceroys, 
131-132;  Extent  of  viceroy- 
alty of,  133;  Indians  of,  221; 
Labor,  in  Colonial,  111;  Later 
viceroys,  133;  Mendoza,  An- 
tonio de,  132;  Hurtado  de,  132; 
Mines  of,  44,  244;  O’Higgins, 
Ambrosio,  viceroy,  133,  135; 
Pardo,  Manuel,  president  of 
(1872-1876),  184;  Population 
in  1800,  127;  Present  popula- 
tion, 225;  Railroads,  249;  Re- 
cent political  history,  185;  Re- 
forms in  colonial  government, 
135;  San  Martin,  invasion  of, 
161;  Santa  Cruz  in,  184;  Since 
independence,  184-186;  Ta- 
boada,  Admiral  de,  viceroy  of, 
135;  Toledo,  Don  Francisco  de, 
viceroy  of,  132;  Wars  for  in- 
dependence in,  155;  War  with 
Chile,  185 

Philip  II,  King  of  Spain,  88 
Philip  III,  King  of  Spain,  82 
Philippines,  43,  97 
Phoenicians,  8,  13 
Pinchincha,  Battle  of,  154 
Pines,  Isle  of,  39 
Pinta,  The,  36,  37 
Pinzon  brothers,  36,  37 
Vincente,  42,  84 
Piracy,  76 
Pitt,  William,  148 
Pizarro,  Fernando,  69,  71 
Pizarro,  Francisco  (Conqueror  of 
Peru),  51,  53,  54,  65-72,  73,  85 
Pizarro,  Gonzalo,  71,  72 
Polk,  James  K.;  President,  204 
Pombal,  Marquis  of,  91 
Reforms  of,  in  Brazil,  92 
Ponce  de  Leon,  43,  48 
Population  (Latin  American) 

In  1800,  127-128;  Of  Cities,  228; 
Present  in,  225 
Porto  Bello,  52,  103,  136 
Portugal,  8,  9,  16,  32,  38,  43,  86, 
92,  102,  165 

Revolution  of  1820  in,  167 
Portuguese,  7,  33,  37,  42,  45,  84 
Colonization  of  Brazil,  46,  85-87, 
100;  Crusades,  16;  Expelled 
from  Brazil,  168;  Knights,  15; 
Navigators,  44;  Voyagers,  32- 
33,  43 


INDEX 


281 


Prescott,  William  H.,  73 
Puerto  Cabello  (Venezuela),  150, 

154 

Q 

Quesada,  78 
Quichuas,  29,  30 
Quicksilver 

Mines  of,  107;  Monopoly  on,  by 
Spain,  114;  Used  in  Mining, 
107 

Quito,  25,  68,  72,  73,  78,  146,  154, 
228 

Monasteries  in,  73;  Population  of, 
in  1800,  128;  University  of,  231 

R 

Railroads,  Latin  American,  247-250 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  76 
Religion,  11,  17,  18,  50 
Aztec,  31,  59-60;  Inca,  68;  Pres- 
ent day  religion  in  Latin  Amer- 
ica, 23,  234-237 
Religious  Liberty,  235-236 
Repartimientos,  48,  119 
Residencia 

Spanish,  96;  Colonial,  100 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  84,  91,  92,  160,  228 
Founding  of,  87 ; Royal  Court  in, 
166 
Rivers 

Mexican,  26;  South  American, 

OQ  930-9/10 

Roads  ’and  Travel,  108-110 
Roman 

Church,  15;  Empire,  9,  10,  13; 
Soldiers,  9 

Rosario  (Argentina),  228 
S 

Saavedra,  Governor  La  Plata  col- 
ony, 81-82 

Saint  Augustine  (Florida),  130 
St.  Die,  College  of,  44 
Saint  Roque,  Cape,  84 
Salta,  110 
Salto  River,  106 
San  Espiritu,  79 
San  Francisco  River,  24,  84,  89 
Naming  of,  84 
San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  56.  130 
San  Juan  (Porto  Rico),  48 
River,  65,  66 

San  Lucar  de  Barrameda,  40 
San  Martin,  Jose  de,  155,  157-158, 
159 


Chacabuco,  Battle  of,  160;  En- 
ters Lima,  162;  Estimate  of, 
163;  In  Chile,  160;  Invades 
Peru,  161;  Maipo,  Battle,  160- 
161;  Meets  Bolivar,  162;  Re- 
tires to  Europe,  162-163 
San  Miguel,  52,  66 
Santa  Anna,  202,  203,  205 
Santa  Cruz,  202,  205 
Santa  Fe,  81,  82 
Santa  Maria,  36,  37,  46 
Del  Darien,  51,  52 
Santiago  de  Chile,  110,  123,  146, 
158,  160 
Founded,  73 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  49,  55,  56,  72 
Santo  Domingo  (see  also  Haiti  and 
Hispaniola),  50,  148 
Republic  of,  intervention  in,  264; 
United  States  and,  261-262 
Santos  (Brazil),  85 
Sao  Paulo,  87,  90,  228 
Sao  Salvador,  87 
Sarges,  32 

Scott,  General  Winfield,  204 
Seville,  16,  38,  44,  97,  102,  146 
Archbishop  of,  14,  38 
Silver 

First  found  by  Spaniards,  106; 
In  Mexico,  102;  In  Peru,  102 
Slaves 

Indian,  55,  76,  77;  Negro,  56,  76, 
86,  110,  111-112;  Treatment 
of,  112;  Value  of,  112 
Social  Classes,  123-124 
Solis,  Juan  Diaz  de,  79 
Sousa,  Martin  de,  85,  87 
Sousa,  Thomas  de,  86 
South  America 

Climate  of,  24-26;  Coast  of,  42; 
Colonization  of,  46,  50;  Flora 
of,  25;  Independence,  153; 
Lakes  of,  24;  Land  Relief  of, 
22;  Natives  of,  28-30;  Rivers 
of,  23,  24 

Spain,  8,  9,  10,  12,  13,  15,  17,  19, 
21,  31,  33,  35,  37,  40,  42,  43,  85 
Economic  program  for  her  col- 
onies, 102;  Present  relations 
with  Latin  America,  253 
Spaniards,  7,  8,  11,  13,  15,  17,  18, 
19,  28,  31,  48,  49,  50,  57-58 
63,  64 
Spanish 

Church,  17;  Colonies,  38,  41,  48, 
54,  108;  Colonial  administra- 
tion, 94-101;  Conquests,  9,  18, 


282 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


55-74;  Conquistadors,  17,  53, 
55;  Crusades,  16;  Economic 
policy,  142;  Intermarriage  with 
natives,  122;  Knights,  15,  17, 
20,  47;  Language,  9,  38;  Mines, 
9;  Navigators,  42-45;  Ports, 
108;  Possessions,  38,  44;  Race, 
7;  Settlers  in  America,  108; 
Society,  17;  Taxation  of  col- 
onies, 112-116;  Treatment  of 
Indians,  118-124;  Voyages,  42- 
45;  West  Indies,  21 
Spice  Islands,  40,  41,  43 
Straits  of  Magellan,  22,  23 
Sucre,  General,  155,  162,  163,  176 
Sugar  Industry 

In  Brazil,  86,  241;  In  Cuba  and 
Haiti,  105,  243 

T 

Taft,  William  H.,  president,  256 

Tagus  River,  37 

Tampico,  55 

Tarik,  12 

Taxes 

Aztec,  58;  Church  revenues,  115; 
Import  and  export  duties,  114; 
Indian  tribute  and  Royal  Fifth, 
113;  Spanish  colonial,  112-116 
Taylor,  General  Zachary,  204 
Tejada,  Lerdo  de,  president  of  Mex- 
ico, 208 
Tepenacs,  58 
Texas,  129,  205 
Revolt  of,  203 
Tezcuco,  58,  62 

Titicaca,  Lake,  24,  29,  80,  109,  155, 
157 

Tlacopan,  58 
Tlascalans,  59,  60,  63 
Toledo,  Maria  de,  47 
Toleration,  13-15 
Tolosa,  Perez  de,  76 
Toltecs,  30,  58 

Totonacs,  60  • 

Trade 

Breaking  down  of  Spanish  trade 
monopoly,  104;  Contraband, 
104;  Monopoly  of,  102-104; 
Panama  Canal  and,  270;  Pres- 
ent conditions  of,  269-270 
Transportation,  247-251 
Travel  in  Latin  America,  108-110 
Cost  of,  110 
Trinidad,  Island  of,  40 
Captured  by  English,  144-145; 
Trade  with,  148 


Tucuman,  Battle  of,  157 
City  of,  228;  Congress  at,  159 
Tupac  Amaru,  132,  133,  140 
Revolt  of,  133;  Execution  of,  134 
Tupi  Indians,  28 

U 

Ulloa,  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de, 
108,  109,  120-121 
Ulloa,  San  Juan  de,  56,  130 
United  States,  7,  21,  23,  148,  176, 
206 

Central  American  States  and, 
257,  259;  Civil  War  in,  207; 
Intervention  by,  in  Mexico, 
256-257;  Relations  with  South 
American  Republics,  262-263; 
War  with  Mexico,  204 
Universities  in  Latin  America 
Colonial,  126;  Present  day,  229- 
232 

Upper  California,  205 
Uraba,  Gulf  of,  77 
Uruguay,  21,  82 

Agriculture,  241;  Education  in, 
229;  Immigration  to,  225-226; 
Independence  of,  200;  Junta  of, 
159;  Political  history  of,  200- 
201;  Railroads  in,  249;  Wars 
for  independence  in,  159-160 
Uspallata  Pass,  159 
Utrecht,  Treaty  of,  103,  111,  130 

V 

Valencia,  37 

Valdivia,  Pedro  de,  73,  74 
City  of,  73 
Valparaiso,  228 
Valverde,  69 
Velasco,  Luis  de,  130 
Velasquez,  Don  Diego,'  First  Gov- 
ernor of  Cuba,  48,  49,  55,  56,  58 
Venezuela,  21,  22,  24,  46,  75,  133, 
148,  150,  209 

Agriculture  in,  242;  Boundary 
dispute,  264;  Captaincy-Gen- 
. era!,  77,  99,  137;  Colonized, 
75-77;  Creoles  of,  149;  Dis- 
covery of,  75;  Education  in, 
231;  First  Republic  of,  151; 
German  merchants  in,  75-76; 
Government  of  (Present),  218- 
219;  Independence  of;  151; 
Mestizos  in,  224;  Mining  in, 
245;  Monroe  Doctrine  and,  264; 
Naming  of,  75;  Negroes  in, 


INDEX 


283 


222, 224;  Population  of,  in  1800, 
127;  Present  population,  225; 
Railroads,  250;  Since  inde- 
pendence, 178-179;  Wars  for 
independence,  150-151 
Vera  Cruz,  49,  55,  57,  62,  72,  103, 
109,  130,  202,  204 
Verde,  Cape,  33 
Islands,  38,  40 

Vespucci,  Amerigo,  42,  44,  75,  84 
Voyages  of,  84 
Viceroy,  Functions  of,  98 
Vice-royalty 

Of  New  Spain,  129;  Of  Peru,  131 
Villegagnon,  Nicolas,  87 

W 

Waldseemiiller,  Map  of,  44 
Walker,  William,  212 
Wars 

Napoleon,  143;  Spanish  Succes- 
sion, 91,  143;  Seven  Years,  143 
Wars  for  Independence,  148-163 


British  Forces  in,  152-153 ; Causes 
of,  140-146;  Campaign  of  1817- 
1818,  152;  Campaign  of  1819, 
153;  In  Ecuador,  154;  Mexican, 
168-172;  Southern  movement, 
156-163;  Uruguay,  159-160 

Welsers,  75,  76 

West  Indies,  21,  44,  46,  54,  76,  142 
Colonies  of,  48,  50;  Dutch  col- 
onies, 104;  English  in,  104; 
Geography  of,  27 

Whitelock,  General,  144 

X 

Ximenes,  Cardinal,  17 
Y 

Yucatan,  27,  30,  43,  55,  205 
Raided  by  buccaneers,  130 

Z 

Zambo.  123,  222 

Zarata,  81 

Zuniga,  y Ercilla,  126 


PRONOUNCING  GLOSSARY 


This1  glossary  is  appended  as  a practical  aid  to  students.  It  lays  no 
claim  to  exactness.  In  making  such  a glossary  many  difficulties  were  met. 
First,  many  of  the  names  have  become  Anglicized  and  for  such  the  English 
pronunciation  is  allowable.  A second  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  many 
Latin  American  names  have  a peculiar  Latin  American  pronunciation,  and 
it  becomes  very  difficult  to  determine  which  form  to  use.  In  such  cases 
the  Castillian  form  has  generally  been  followed.  Thanks  are  due  Professor 
E.  B.  Nichols  for  his  expert  assistance. 


The  markings  have  been  made  as  simple  as  possible,  and  are  as  follows: 


*• 

Table 

of  Sounds 

in  ale 
in  c&re 
in  &m 
in  arm 
in  ask 

e in  eve 
6 in  6nd 
e in  ever 

I in  Ice 
I in  111 

6 in  old 
6 in  6rb 
6 in  6dd 
66  in  f5od 
66  in  f66t 
ou  in  out 

u in  use 
d in  drn 
6 in  Qp 

th  in  then 
th  in  thin 

A 

Abascal  (a-bas-k&l'),  Fernando  Jos6 
(fgr-n&n'-do  ho-sa') 

Aconcagua  (a-kon-ka'-gwa) 
Adelantado  (a'-<Aa-lan-ta'-tfto) 
Alcalde  (al-kal'-da) 

Alcalde  de  Crimen  (da  cre'-mSn) 
Alcantara  (al-kan'-ta-ra) 

Alcavala  (al-ka-va'-la) 

Algarves  (al-gar'-v6s) 

Alhambra  (a-lSm'-bra) 

Allende  (al-y6n'-de) 

Almagro  (al-mag'-ro) 

Alvarado,  de  (da,  al'-va-ra'-t/t5) 
Alvdrez  (al-va'-rath) 

Amat  (a-mat'),  Don  Manuel  (dSn 
ma-noo-Sl') 

Amazon  (a-ma-thon') 

Anahuac  (a-na'-wak) 

Andagoya  (an-da-go'-ya),  Pascual  de 
(pas-kw&l') 

Andrada  (an-dra'-lAa) 

Antigua  (an-te'-gwa) 

Apodaca  (a-po-da'-ka) 

Aragon  (a-ra-gon') 

Arawak  (a'-rar-wak) 

Araucanian  (&r-o-ka'-nI-an) 
Arequipa  (a-ra-ke'-pa) 

Argentina  (Sp.  ar-han-te'-na) 

Arica  (a-re'ka) 


Artigas  (ar-te'-gas),  Jos6  (ho-sa') 
Asturians  (Eng.  as-to6'-re-3.ns) 
Asunci6n  (a-soon-the-on') 
Atahualpa  (a-ta-wal'-pa) 

Audiencia  (au-dyan'-the-a) 

Avil4s  (a-ve-les') 

Ayacucho  (a-ya-k5o'-cho) 

Auto  de  (ou'-to  da  fa') 

Aymards  (i-ma-ras') 

Aztecs  (az'-t6ks) 

Azores  (a-zorz') 

B 

Baetica  (be'-tf-ka) 

Bahama  (ba-a'-ma) 

Bahia  (ba-e'-a) 

Balboa,  de  (bal-bo'-a)  Vasco  Nunez 
(v&s'-ko  noon'-ygth) 

Balmaceda  (bal-ma-tha'-</ia) 

Balsas,  Rio  de  las  (bal-sas',  re'-o  da 
las) 

Barcelona  (bar-the-l5'-na) 

Basque  (bask) 

Bastidas  ( bas-te'-th&a ) 

Bayonne  (ba-y6n') 

Belgrano  (b61-gra'-n5) 

Belzu  (bfil'-thoo) 

Benalca'zar  (ba-nal-ka'-thar) 

Berber  (bdr'-ber) 

Bio  Bio  (be'-o  be'-o) 

285 


286 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


BobadiUa,  de  (bS-va-^el'-ya) 
Bogota,  Santa  Fe  de  (bo-go-ta', 
sdn'-ta  fa.da) 

Bolivar  (bo-le'-var),  Simon 
Bolivia  (Eng.  bo-llv'-l-a) 

Boulogne  (boo-lon') 

Boves  (bo'-ves) 

Boyacd,  (bo-ya-ka') 

Boy  16  (boy-la'),  Bernardo 
Bravo,  de  (bra'-vo),  Melchar  (mal- 
char') 

Brazil  (bra-zel') 

Buenos  Aires  (bwa'-nos  i'-ras) 
Bulnes  (bool'-nes),  Manuel 

C 

Cabildos  (ca-bfl'-dos) 

Cabot  (k&b'-Qt),  Sebastian 
Cabral,  de  (da  ka-bral'),  Pedro 
Alvdrez 

Cddiz  (Eng.  ka'-dlz;  Sp.  ka'-tAeth) 
Calatrava  (ka-la-tra'-va) 

Callao  (ka-lya'-o) 

Calleja  (kal-ya'-ha) 

Cantabrians  (k&n-t&'-brl-Sns) 
Capac,  Huayna  (ka'-pSk,  wl'-na) 
Cape  de  la  Vela  (da  la  ve'-la) 
Carabobo  (ka-ra-bo'-bo) 

Caracas  (ka-ra'-kas) 

Caribs  (kSr'-Ibs) 

Carranza  (ka-rran'-tha) 

Carrera  (ka-rre'-ra) 

Cartagena  (kar-ta-je'-na;  Sp.  kar-ta- 
ha'-na) 

Casa  de  Contrataci6n  (ka'-sa  da 
c5n-tra-ta-thI-ong') 

Castellanos  (cas-tel-ya'-nos),  Juan 
de 

Castile  (k&s-tel') 

Castro  (kas'-tro),  de  Vaca  (da  va'- 
ka) 

Cauca  (kau'-ka) 

Cauto  (kou'-to) 

Caxamarca,  or  Cajamarca  (ka-ha- 
mar'-ca) 

Cebellos  (the-b6l'-yos),  Antonio  de 
Celman  (thal'-man),  Juarez  (hwa'- 
ras) 

Cer6n  (tha'-ron),  Juan  de 
Cerro  de  Pasco  (th6'-rro  pas'-ko) 
Ceuta  (tha'-oo-ta) 

Chacabuco  (cha-ka-bSo'-ko) 
Chagres  (cha'-gr6s) 

Chapat6n  (cha-pa-ton') 

Charcas  (char'-cas) 

Chibchas  (chib'-chas) 


Chihuahua  (che-wa'-wa) 

Chile  (che'-la) 

Cholula  (cho-loo'-la) 

Cid  (Eng.  sld;  Sp.  th eth) 

Ciudad  Bolivar  (thyoo-i/iaife'  bo-le'- 
var) 

Coligny  (ko-len-ye'),  Gaspard  de, 
Admiral 

Colombia  (ko-lom'-be-a) 

Col6n  (ko-lon') 

Concepci6n  (kon-th6p-thyon') 
Conquistador  (Eng.  k6n-kwls'-ta- 
dor;  Sp.  kon-kes-ta-<A5r'), 
Coquimbo  (ko-kem'-bo) 

Cordillera  (k6r-dl-ly6'-ra) 

C6rdoba  (kor'-do-va),  Hernandez 
de 

Coro  (ko'-ro) 

Corral  (kor-ral'),  Ram6n 
Corregidor  (Eng.  k6-r6j'-I-dor;  Sp. 

ko-rra-he-</ior) 

Corrientes  (k6-rre-6n'-t6s) 

Cort6s  (kdr-tas'),  Hernando 
Cosa  (ko'-sa),  Juan  de  la 
Costa  Rica  (kos'-ta  re'-ka) 
Cotopaxi  (ko-to-pa'-he) 

Cozmnel  (k5-soo-m6l') 

Creole  (kre'-ol) 

Crespo  (kras'-po) 

Croix  (krwa),  Theodoro  de 
Cruz  (da  la  krodth),  Juana  In6s 
de  la 

Cruzada  (kroo-tha'-<M) 

Cuba  (ku'-ba) 

Cuyo  (koo'-yo) 

Cuzco  (ko52/i'-ko) 

D 

Daza  (da'-tha),  Hilari6n  (e-la-re-on') 
Darien  (da-re-6n') 

De  Medici  (da  m6'-de-che) 

De  Soto  (dd  so'-to),  Fernando 
De  Torre  (da  to'-rra) 

De  Vaca  (da  va'ka),  Cabeza  (ka- 
be'-tha) 

Diaz  (de'-ash),  Bartholomeu 
Didz  del  Castillo  (de'-ath  del  k&s- 
te'-lyd),  Bernal 
Dominica  (d6m-I-ne'-ka) 

E 

Ecuador  (fi'-kvrk-thoi) 

El  Dorado  (61  do-ra'-iAo) 

El  Mercurio  (al  m&r-koo'-re-o) 
Encomienda  (6n-ko-mI-6n'-da) 
Ensico  (6n-se'-ko) 


PRONOUNCING  GLOSSARY 


287 


Entre  Rios  (en'-tra  re'-os) 

Ercilla  y Zuniga,  de  (6r-the'-lya  e 
thoo'-nye-ga,  da)  . 

Eslava  (es-la'-ba),  Sebastian  de 
Evora  (a'-vo-ra) 

F 

Ferdinand  (fSr'-dl-nSnd) 

Flores  (flo'-ras),  Juana  (hwa'-na) 
Jos6 

Fonseca,  de  (fon-sa'-ka),  Juan 
Rodriguez  (ro-dre'-gath) 

Francia  (fran'-the-a),  Jose  Gaspar 
Rodriguez 

Frias  (frl'-as),  Manuel  de 
G 

Gama  (ga'-ma),  Vasco  da 
Garay  (ga-ri'),  Juan  de 
Garcia-Calderdn  (gar-the'-a-k&l- 
dSr-on') 

Garcia-Moreno  (mo-re'-no) 

Genoa  (jSn'-o-a) 

Gdngora,  Diego  de  (g5n'-go-ra) 
Gonzalo  (gon-tha'-lo) 

Gracias  a Dios  (gra'-the-as  a dyos') 
Granada  (Eng.  gra-na'-da;  Sp.  gra- 
na'-<Aa) 

Grijalva  (da  gre-hal'-va),  Juan  de 
Guadalquivir  (go-d&l-kwlv'-er;  Sp. 

gwa-<4al-ke-ver') 

Guadaljara  (gwa-^/ia-la-ha'-rii) 
Guadelete  (gwa-^a-la'-te) 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (gwa-i/ia-loo'- 
pa  e-thUY-go) 

Guanahuato  (gwa-na-wa'-to) 
Guatemala  (gwa-ta-ma'-la) 
Guayaquil  (gwi-ya-kel') 

Guiana  (ge-an'-a) 

Guinea  (gln'-I) 

Guicciardini  (gwe-tchar-de'-ne), 
Francesco  (fran-ches'-co) 
Guzman-Bianco  (gooth-man'  blan'- 
ko) 

H 

Habana  (ha-va'-na) 

Haiti  (ha'-tl) 

Hamilcar  Barca  (ha-mll'-kar  bar'- 
ka) 

Hannibal  (h&n'-I-bal) 

Henequ6n  (a-na-kan') 

Heredia  (a-ra'-<Ae-a),  Jos6  Maria  de 
Hidalgo,  y Costilla  (e-<Aal'-go  e kos- 
te'-lya),  Miguel 
Hispaniola  (hls-pin-yo'-la) 


Historia  de  las  Indias  Nueva 
Espana  (es-tor'-I-a  da  las  in'-de- 
as  nwa'-va  es-pan'-ya) 

Honduras  (h6n-doo'-ras) 

Huascar  (was'-kar) 

Huerta  (w6r'-ta) 

Huguenots  (hu'-ge-ndts) 

Humboldt  (Eng.  hum'-bolt),  Fried 
rich  Heinrich  Alexander  von 

I 

Iberians  (I-be'-rl-an) 

Iguala  (I-gwa'-la) 

Incas  (in'-kas) 

Intendent  (In-tCn'-dSnt) 

Irala  (i-ra'-la) 

Iturbide  (da  e-toor-be'-^/ia),  Agustin 
de 

Ixtaccihualt  (es-tak-se'-hwatl) 

J 

Jamaica  (ja-ma'-ka) 

Judrez  (hwa'-rath),  Benito  Pablo 
(ba-ne'-to  pa'-blo) 

Junto  (hoo-nen') 

Junta  (hoon'-ta) 

K 

Kalif  (ka'-llf) 

L 

La  Cosa  (la  k5'-sa) 

La  Naci6n  (la  na-the-on') 

La  Navidad  (la  mi- vi-lh&th') 

La  Noche  Triste  (la  no'-cha  tres'- 
ta) 

La  Paz  (la  path) 

La  Plata  (la  pla'-ta) 

La  Prensa  (la  pran'-sa) 

Las  Casas  (las  ka'-sas),  Bartolom6 
de  (bar-t5-lo-ma') 

La  Serna  (la  sar'-na) 

La  Valle  (vii'-lya) 

Le6n  (la-on') 

Leyva  (lay'-va),  Andros  Venero  de 
(an'-dros  va-na'-ro) 

Libro  de  Tasas  (leb'-ro  tha,  tSs'-Ss) 
Lima  (le'ma) 

Liniers  (le-ne-ars') 

Lisbon  (llz'-bun) 

Llama  (lya'-ma) 

Lopez  (lo'-path),  Carlos  Antonio 
(kiir'-los  an-to'-nyo),  Francisco 
Solano 

Lusitania  (lu-sl-ta'-nl-a) 


288 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


M 

Madeira  (ma-da'-e-ra) 

Madero  (ma-i/ie'-ro) 

Magdalena  (mag-da-la'-na) 
Magellan  (ma-j&l'-an),  Fernando 
Maipo  (mi'-po) 

Malaga  (ma'-la-ga) 

Manco  (mbn'-ko) 

Manaos  (ma-na'-ush) 

Manuel  (man-u-el'),  Nuno 
Manila  (ma-ne'-la) 

Maracaibo  (ma-ra-ki'-bo) 

Maranhao  (ma-ra-nyoun') 
Margarite  (mar-ga-re'-ta) 

Merida  (ma'-re-tka) 

Mayas  (ma'-ybs) 

Mendoza  (m&i-do'-tha),  Antonio 
de  Hurtado  (ur-ta'-^o) 

Mestizo  (Eng.  mfis-te'-zo;  Sp.  mas- 
te'-tho) 

Mexico  (Eng.  mgk'-sl-ko;  Sp.  ma'- 
he-ko) 

Minas  Geraes  (me'-nash  zha-rish') 
Minuano  (me-nwa'-no) 

Miramon  (me-ra-mon'),  Miguel 
Miranda  (me-ran'-da),  Francisco 
Mita  (me'-ta) 

Mitre  (me'-tra) 

Monagas  (mo-na'-gas),  Jose 
Monteverde  (mon-ta-v6r'-da) 
Montevideo  (Eng.  mon-te-vid'-e-5; 

Sp.  mon-ta-ve-^a'-o) 

Montes  (mbn'-tas) 

Montezuma  (Eng.  mSn-te-zoo'-ma) 
Morelos-Pav6n(mo-ra'-los-pa-von'), 
Jose  Maria 
Morillo  (mo-re'-lyo) 

Mosquero  (mos-ke'-ro) 


N 

Napo  (na'-po) 

Narvdez  (nar-va'-ath),  Pdnfilo  de 
(pan'-fe-lo) 

Navarre  (na-va'-rra) 

Navas  de  Tolosa  (na'-vas  da  to-lo'- 
sa) 

Nevado  de  Colima  (na-va'-tho  da 
ko-le'-ma) 

New  Granada  (Eng.  gra-na'-da; 

Sp.  nwa'-va  gra-na'-tha) 
Nicaragua  (ne-ka-ra'-gwa) 

Nicuesa  (ne-kwa'-sa) 

Nina  (ne'-nya) 

Nombre  de  Dios  (nom'-bra  da 
dyos') 


Noticias  Secretas  de  America  (no- 
tl'-the-as  sa-kre-tas'  da  a-ma'-re- 
ka) 

Nunez  (n55'-ny6th),  Rafael 
Nuno  (noo'-nyo),  Manuel 


O 

Oaxaca  (wa-ha'-ka) 

Ocampo  (o-kam'-po) 

O’Donoju  (6-do-no-h5o') 

O’Higgins  (Sp.  o-e'-gens),  Bernardo 
Ojeda  (d-ha'-tha) 

Olid,  de  (d-llth’),  Cristdbal 
Ordonanzas  de  la  Mineria  de  Nueva 
Espana  (or-do-ndn'-thas  da  la 
ml-na-re'-a  da  nwa'-va  e-span'- 
ya) 

Orinoco  (o-rl-no'-ko) 

Oroya  (o-ro'-ya) 

Oruro  (o-roo'-ro) 

Orzaba  (6r-tha'-ba) 

Ovando  (o-vdn'-do),  Nicolds  de 
(ne-ko-las') 

P 

Paez  (pa'-ath),  Jose  Antonio 
Palma  (pal'-ma),  Tombs  Estrada 
(es-tra'-</ia) 

Palos  (pa'-l5s) 

Pampas  (pbm'-pas) 

Panamb  (pb-na-ma') 

Parb  (pa-ra') 

Paraguay  (pa-ra-gwi') 

Paranb  (pa-ra-na') 

Partidos  (par-te'-/^os) 

Patos,  Los  (los  pa'-tos) 

Pajra  (pa'-ya) 

Pedrarias  Dbvila  (pa-dra'-re-as  da'- 
ve-la) 

Pedro  (pe'-dro) 

Pensacola  (p6n-sa-ko'-la) 
Pernambuco  (p5r-nam-bo5'-ko) 
Pesos  de  oro  (pa'-sos  da  o'-ro) 
Pezuela  (pe-thwe'-la) 

Pichincha  (pe-chen'-cha) 

Pinta  (pen'-ta) 

Pinzon  (pen-thon'),  Martin  Alonso, 
Vicente  Ybnez 

Pizarro  (Eng.  pl-zar'-ro;  Sp.  pe-tha- 
rro),  Francisco 

Pombal  (pom-bal'),  Marquis  de 
Ponce  de  Le6n  (pon'-tha  da  la-on'), 
Juan 

Popocatepetl  (po-po-ka-ta'-pSt’l) 
Portales  (por-tal'-as),  Diego 


PRONOUNCING  GLOSSARY 


289 


Porto  Bello  (por'-t5  ba'-ly5) 

Potosl  (pd-to-se') 

Prieto  (pre-a'-t5) 

Pueblo  de  Indios  (pwSb'-lo  da  In- 
de-5s) 

Puerto  Cabello  (pw6r'-to  ka-b8l'- 
yo) 

Puerto  Principe  (pren'-the-pa) 

Q 

Queretaro  (ka-ra'-ta-ro) 

Quesada  (ka-sa'-tha) 

Quetzalcoatl  (kat-thal-ko'-3,t’l) 
Quichuas  (ke'-chwas) 

Quito  (ke'-to) 

R 

Ramalho,  Joao  (ra-mal'-u) 

Reccared  (re-kar'-Sd) 

Recopilacion  de  leyes  de  los  Revnos 
de  las  Indias  (ra-ko-pe-la-iAe-on' 
da  lay'-as  da  los  ray-nos'  da  las 
en-de-as') 

Repartimientos  (ra-par-te-myfin'- 
tos) 

Residencia  (ra-se-dSn'-thya) 
Revillagigedo  (ra-ve-lya-gI-g&'-<Ao) 
Reyes  (ra'-yas),  Rafael 
Rio  de  Janeiro  (re'-o  da  zha-na'-ro) 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (re'-o  gran'-dS 
d65  so5l) 

Rivadavia  (rl-ba-da-be'-a),  Bernar- 
do 

Roca  (ro'-ka),  Julio 
Rocafuerte  (ro-ka-fwSr'-ta) 
Roderick  (rbd'-er-Ik) 

Rojas  Paul  (ro'-has) 

Rojas  Ricardo  (re-kar'-</i5) 

Rosario  (ro-sa'-re-o) 

Rosas  (ro'-sas),  Juan  Manuel  de 
Rousseau  (roo-so') 

S 

Saavedra  (sa-a-va'-^/tra) , Antonio  de 
Saint  Die  (san  dya') 

Salta  (sal'-ta) 

Salto  (sal'-to) 

Salvador  (sal-va-^/ior') 

San  Antonio  (san  an-ton'-yo) 

San  Carlos  (san  kar-los') 

San  Esplritu  (san  es-pe'-r6-to5) 

San  Fernando  (san  f&r-nan'-do) 

San  Francisco  (fran-thes'-ko) 

San  Gabriel  (gab-re-al') 

Sangai  (san-g!') 


San  Juan  de  Ulloa  (san  hwan  da 
ool-yo'-a) 

Sanlucar  de  Barrameda  (san-loo'- 
kar  da  bar-ra-ma,'-<M) 

San  Luis  Potosl  (san  lo5-es'  po-to- 
se') 

San  Martin,  de  (san  mar-ten'),  Jose 
San  Miguel,  de  (san  me-gSl') 

San  Sebastian  (san  se-bAs-ty2.n') 
Santa  Ana  (san'-ta  a'-na),  Antonio 
L6pez  (an-ton'-yo  lo'-p&th) 

Santa  Crus  (san'-ta  kroofA) 

Santa  Marta  (mar'-ta) 

Santander  (san-tan-d6r'),  Francisco 
de  Paula 

Santiago  (san-te-a'-g5) 

Santo  Domingo  (san'-to  do-mIn'-g5) 
Santos  (san'-tQQsh) 

Sao  Paulo  (soun  pou-158) 

Sao  Roque  (san-ro'-ka) 

Sao  Salvador  (sal-va-dor') 

Sao  Vicente  (ve-sSn'-t8) 

Sarges  (sar'-jesh) 

Seville  (Eng.  se-vll';  Sp.  sa-vel'-ya) 
Sierra  Madre  (sl-6r'-a  ma'-dra) 

Solis,  de  (so-les'),  Juan  Diaz 
Sorata  (so-ra'-ta) 

Sousa,  de  (s5o'-za),  Martim 
Sucre  (soo'-kra),  Antonio  Jose  de 
Sultepec  (sool-ta'-pek) 

T 

Taboada,  de  (ta-bo-a'-iAa),  Admiral 
miral 

Tagus  (ta'-gus) 

Tampico  (tam-pe'-ko) 

Tarraconensis  (tar-ra-ko-n6n'-s!s) 
Taxco  (tax'-ko) 

Tejada  (te-ha'-<Aa),  Lerdo  de  (lSr'- 
tho) 

Tepenacs  (te-pS-nS.ks') 

Terraza  Hacienda  (t6-rra'-tha  a- 
the-an'-da) 

Tierras  Calientes  (tyS'-rras  ka-le- 
an'-tes) 

Tinta  (ten'-ta) 

Titicaca  (tl-te-ka'-ka) 

Tlacopan  (tla-ko-pan') 

Tlaxcala  (tlas-ka'-la) 

Tocuyo  (to-koo'-yo) 

Toledo  (Eng.  to-le'-do;  Sp.  to-la'- 
tho) 

Tolosa  (to-lo'-sa),  Perez  de  (pa'- 
rCth) 

Toltec  (t61-t8k') 

Totonacs  (to-to-n&ks') 


290 


A HISTORY  OF  LATIN  AMERICA 


Tucumdn  (too-ko5-man') 
Tunguragua  (toon-goo-ra'-gwa) 
Tupac,  Amaru  (too'-p&k  am-ar'-oo) 

U 

Ugarte  (oo-gar'-ta) 

Uraba  (oo-ra'-ba) 

Urbina  (oor-be'-na) 

Urquiza  (oor-ke'-tha,  Justo  Jos6 
Uruguay  (o-ro-gwi') 

Uspallata  (oos-pal-ya'-ta) 

Utrecht  (u'-trSkt) 

V 

Valencia  (Eng.  va-lSn'-shl-a;  Sp. 

v;i-l6n-the'-a) 

Valdivia  (val-de'-vya) 

Valparaiso  (Eng.  v&l-pa-ra'-zo;  Sp. 

val-pa-ra-e'-so) 

Val verde  (val-v6r'-da) 

Vela,  de  la  (va'-la) 

Velasco  (va-las'-ko),  Luis  de 
VeMsquez  (va-las'-kath),  Diego 
Venero  de  Leyva  (va-ne'-ro  da  la'- 
yvS),  Andres 

Venezuela  (Eng.  ven-e-zwe'-la;  Sp. 

va-na'-thwa-la) 

Vera  Cruz  (va'-ra  krooth) 

Veragua  (va-ra'-gwa) 


Verde  (vdr-d6') 

Vespucci  (v&s-pu'-che),  Amerigo 
Villa  (vel'-ya) 

Villegaignon  (vel-ga-nyon') 

Nicolas  Durand 

Volcdn  de  Colima  (vol-kSn'  da  ko- 
le'-ma) 

W 

Waldseemuller  (valt'-za-mii-ler), 
Martin 

Weyler,  y Nicolau  (va-l6r'  e ne-ko- 
la'-66) 

X 

Ximenes  (Eng.  zl-me-nez';  Sp.  he- 
ma'-nas) 

Y 

Yaqui  (ya'-ke) 

Yucatdn  (yoo-ka-tan') 

Z 

Zacatecas  (tha-ka-ta'-kas) 

Zambo  (tham'-bo) 

Zarata  (tha-ra'-ta) 

Zelaya  (tha-la'-ya),  Jose  Santos 
Zuniga,  Ercilla  y (thoon'-ye-ga,  gr- 
thel'-ya  e) 


Date  Due 


N 9 

► 

N 22  *3? 

<f) 

r . > 


) 


